I
NTRODUCTION TO
L
INGUISTICS
.
L
ECTURE
8.
Words in context
0. Language is a system of arbitrary signs used in a society for communication. System: a group of
elements or factors which interact (e.g. language, human body, society, chess, logic, traffic lights,
etc.).
I. Relations in a system:
1. Syntagmatic (simultaneous possibilities, string of constituents, linear order, addition)
2. Paradigmatic (competing possibilities, contrast, selection)
3. System: class of paradigmatically related elements (e.g. case system, tense system)
4. Structure: set of syntagmatically related constituents (e.g. sentence, clause)
5. Identity of a unit within the language (system): syntagmatic relations + paradigmatic relations
II. Words in context:
1. Syntagmatic relation: collocation, colligation (grammatical collocation);
2. Paradigmatic relation: sense.
plan
rejected
group
application
approved
commission
The
scheme
was submitted by the
committee
proposal
accepted
government
programme
discussed
body
3. Stylistic context:
a. spoken / written / electronic (digital)
b. technical / non-technical
c. formal / informal
d. General English / Special English
4. Social context (dialect):
a. global / regional
b. standard / substandard
c. high / low
III. Lexical (sense) relations:
1. synonymy (relation of sameness, similarity):
‘What is the meaning of conceal ? The same as hide’
near synonymy:
let – allow – permit; start – begin – commence; end – finish – terminate
2. antonymy (relation of oppositeness, contrast):
‘What is the meaning of shallow ? The opposite of deep’
graded: big – small, good – bad, old – young, love – hate;
non-graded (complementary / contradictory): dead – alive, single – married, true – false;
converse: husband – wife, parent – child, sell – buy, lend – borrow;
incompatibility (days of week, seasons, colours, etc.).
