Microsoft Word - Fizyka Medyczna, Nanotechnology, Nanomedicine, Nanomateria…

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Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

by Elżbieta Kania (AGH UST ) You are free to display and print these materials for your personal, non-commercial use, but you may not

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NANOTECHNOLOGY

Adapted from:
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4568126_nanotechnology-work.html
and
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nanotechnology

I. Pre-reading questions

1) How would you define nanotechnology?

2) What applications has it already found?

3) How can it prove useful in medicine?

4) Can you think of any risks it can carry?

II. Complete some facts about nanotechnology with the correct words from the list:

sensitive,  cells,  macro-sized,  bulk,  implementation,  tissues,  fundamental,  fenomenal,  self-
assembling,  attributed,  inside-out,  exposed  to,  expanded,  raw,  combustible,  implications,
residues,  residual,  in  its  wake,  replicate,  transparent,  customized,  stable,  volatile,  self-
assembling, opaque, attributed.

Nanotechnology is a science with unforseen ...................................................... The possibility

to remake materials from..............................opens up a whole new manufacturing process

which uses the .......................... building blocks of our universe.

This ability will allow finished products to be .................................. to order. The self-

...................... features of the DNA, proteins and enzymes are what scientists are looking to

...................... on a molecular level.

Nano-particles are shown to be more .................... and reactive. This is ................. to

the increased surface area these ................... components are ................................. in the nano-

state. Nano-particles can be different colour than in their ................................. forms. Copper

is an ........................ colour but becomes .................................. at nano-state. Some particles,

like aluminium, a ................. material in macro-scale, become ...................... when reduced

to a nano-particle.

The environmental ......................................... posed by nanotechnology development

are, as yet, unknown. One study showed physical ....................... of nano-particle agents in

the brain and lung ................. of rats exposed to nano-particles.

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Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

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III. Work in pairs.

Student A: read the text How nanotechnology works.
Student B: read the text Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes.

Student B: ask student A: 1) How large is nanoscale?

2) What is the connection between quantum physics and nanoscale?

3) What is electron tunneling?

4) What use would engineers like to make of nanotechnology?

Student A: ask student B: 1) What are nanowires and what application may they find in

electronics?

2) What are carbon nanotubes and what do their properties depend

on?

Student A: How nantechnology works:

Experts sometimes disagree about what constitutes the nanoscale, but in general, you can
think of nanotechnology dealing with anything measuring between 1 and 100 nm. Larger than
that is the microscale, and smaller than that is the atomic scale.

Nanotechnology is rapidly becoming an interdisciplinary field. Biologists, chemists, physicists
and engineers are all involved in the study of substances at the nanoscale. Dr. Störmer hopes
that the different disciplines develop a common language and communicate with one another
[source: Störmer]. Only then, he says, can we effectively teach nanoscience since you can't
understand the world of nanotechnology without a solid background in multiple sciences.

One  of  the  exciting  and  challenging  aspects  of  the  nanoscale  is  the  role  that  quantum
mechanics  plays  in  it.  The  rules  of  quantum  mechanics  are  very  different  from  classical
physics,  which  means  that  the  behavior  of  substances  at  the  nanoscale  can  sometimes
contradict  common  sense  by  behaving  erratically.  You  can't  walk  up  to  a  wall  and
immediately teleport to the other side of it, but at the nanoscale an electron can -- it's called
electron  tunneling.  Substances  that  are  insulators,  meaning  they  can't  carry  an  electric
charge,  in  bulk  form  might  become  semiconductors  when  reduced  to  the  nanoscale.  Melting
points can change due to an increase in surface area. Much of nanoscience requires that you
forget what you know and start learning all over again.

So  what  does  this  all  mean?  Right  now,  it  means  that  scientists  are  experimenting  with
substances at the nanoscale to learn about their properties and how we might be able to take
advantage  of  them  in  various  applications.  Engineers  are  trying  to  use  nano-size  wires  to
create  smaller,  more  powerful  microprocessors.  Doctors  are  searching  for  ways  to  use
nanoparticles  in  medical  applications.  Still,  we've  got  a  long  way  to  go  before
nanotechnology dominates the technology and medical markets.

In the next section, we'll look at two important nanotechnology structures: nanowires and
carbon nanotubes.

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Student B:Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes

Currently,  scientists  find  two  nano-size  structures  of  particular  interest:  nanowires  and
carbon nanotubes. Nanowires are wires with a very small diameter, sometimes as small as 1
nanometer. Scientists hope to use them to build tiny transistors for computer chips and other
electronic  devices.  In  the  last  couple  of  years,  carbon  nanotubes  have  overshadowed
nanowires.  We're still learning about these structures, but what we've learned so far is very
exciting.

A carbon nanotube is a nano-size cylinder of carbon atoms. Imagine a sheet of carbon atoms,
which would look like a sheet of hexagons. If you roll that sheet into a tube, you'd have a
carbon nanotube. Carbon nanotube properties depend on how you roll the sheet. In other
words, even though all carbon nanotubes are made of carbon, they can be very different from
one another based on how you align the individual atoms.

With  the  right  arrangement  of  atoms,  you  can  create  a  carbon  nanotube  that's  hundreds  of
times  stronger  than  steel,  but  six  times  lighter  [source:  The  Ecologist].  Engineers  plan  to
make  building  material  out  of  carbon  nanotubes,  particularly  for  things  like  cars  and
airplanes.  Lighter  vehicles  would  mean  better  fuel  efficiency,  and  the  added  strength
translates to increased passenger safety.

Carbon nanotubes can also be effective semiconductors with the right arrangement of atoms.
Scientists are still working on finding ways to make carbon nanotubes a realistic option for
transistors in microprocessors and other electronics.

In the next section, we'll look at products that are taking advantage of nanotechnology

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IV. Read "The Future of Nanotechnology" and "Nanotechnology Challenges, Risks and

Ethics" and compare the information in the texts with the answers you gave to pre-
reading questions.

The Future of Nanotechnology

In the world of "Star Trek," machines called replicators can produce practically any physical
object, from weapons to a steaming cup of Earl Grey tea. Long considered to be exclusively
the product of science fiction, today some people believe replicators are a very real
possibility. They call it molecular manufacturing, and if it ever does become a reality, it
could drastically change the world.

Atoms  and  molecules  stick  together  because  they  have  complementary  shapes  that  lock
together, or charges that attract. Just like with magnets, a positively charged atom will stick
to  a  negatively  charged  atom.  As  millions  of  these  atoms  are  pieced  together  by
nanomachines,  a  specific  product  will  begin  to  take  shape.  The  goal  of  molecular
manufacturing is to manipulate atoms individually and place them in a pattern to produce a
desired structure.

The first step would be to develop nanoscopic machines, called assemblers, that scientists can
program to manipulate atoms and molecules at will. Rice University Professor Richard
Smalley points out that it would take a single nanoscopic machine millions of years to
assemble a meaningful amount of material. In order for molecular manufacturing to be
practical, you would need trillions of assemblers working together simultaneously. Eric
Drexler believes that assemblers could first replicate themselves, building other assemblers.
Each generation would build another, resulting in exponential growth until there are enough
assemblers to produce objects [source: Ray Kurzweil]. Assemblers might have moving parts
like the nanogears in this concept drawing.

Trillions of assemblers and replicators could fill an area smaller than a cubic millimeter, and
could  still  be  too  small  for  us  to  see  with  the  naked  eye.  Assemblers  and  replicators  could
work  together  to  automatically  construct  products,  and  could  eventually  replace  all
traditional  labor  methods.  This  could  vastly  decrease  manufacturing  costs,  thereby  making
consumer  goods  plentiful,  cheaper  and  stronger.  Eventually,  we  could  be  able  to  replicate
anything, including diamonds, water and food. Famine could be eradicated by machines that
fabricate foods to feed the hungry.

Nanotechnology  may  have  its  biggest  impact  on  the  medical  industry.  Patients  will  drink
fluids  containing  nanorobots  programmed  to  attack  and  reconstruct  the  molecular  structure
of  cancer  cells  and  viruses.  There's  even  speculation  that  nanorobots  could  slow  or  reverse
the aging process, and life expectancy could increase significantly. Nanorobots could also be
programmed  to  perform  delicate  surgeries  --  such  nanosurgeons  could  work  at  a  level  a
thousand  times  more  precise  than  the  sharpest  scalpel  [source:  International  Journal  of
Surgery].  By  working  on  such  a  small  scale,  a  nanorobot  could  operate  without  leaving  the
scars  that  conventional  surgery  does.  Additionally,  nanorobots  could  change  your  physical
appearance.  They  could  be  programmed  to  perform  cosmetic  surgery,  rearranging  your
atoms to change your ears, nose, eye color or any other physical feature you wish to alter.

Nanotechnology has the potential to have a positive effect on the environment. For instance,
scientists could program airborne nanorobots to rebuild the thinning ozone layer. Nanorobots
could remove contaminants from water sources and clean up oil spills. Manufacturing
materials using the bottom-up method of nanotechnology also creates less pollution than

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Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

by Elżbieta Kania (AGH UST ) You are free to display and print these materials for your personal, non-commercial use, but you may not

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any form (including by e-mail or other electronic means.)

conventional manufacturing processes. Our dependence on non-renewable resources would
diminish with nanotechnology. Cutting down trees, mining coal or drilling for oil may no
longer be necessary -- nanomachines could produce those resources.

Many nanotechnology experts feel that these applications are well outside the realm of
possibility, at least for the foreseeable future. They caution that the more exotic applications
are only theoretical. Some worry that nanotechnology will end up like virtual reality -- in
other words, the hype surrounding nanotechnology will continue to build until the limitations
of the field become public knowledge, and then interest (and funding) will quickly dissipate.

In the next section, we'll look at some of the challenges and risks of nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology Challenges, Risks and Ethics

The  most  immediate  challenge  in  nanotechnology  is  that  we  need  to  learn  more  about
materials  and  their  properties  at  the  nanoscale.  Universities  and  corporations  across  the
world  are  rigorously  studying  how  atoms  fit  together  to  form  larger  structures.  We're  still
learning about how quantum mechanics impact substances at the nanoscale.

Because elements at the nanoscale behave differently than they do in their bulk form, there's a
concern that some nanoparticles could be toxic. Some doctors worry that the nanoparticles
are so small, that they could easily cross the blood-brain barrier, a membrane that protects
the brain from harmful chemicals in the bloodstream. If we plan on using nanoparticles to
coat everything from our clothing to our highways, we need to be sure that they won't poison
us.

Closely related to the knowledge barrier is the technical barrier. In order for the incredible
predictions  regarding  nanotechnology  to  come  true,  we  have  to  find  ways  to  mass  produce
nano-size  products  like  transistors  and  nanowires.  While  we  can  use  nanoparticles  to  build
things  like  tennis  rackets  and  make  wrinkle-free  fabrics,  we  can't  make  really  complex
microprocessor chips with nanowires yet.

There  are  some  hefty  social  concerns  about  nanotechnology  too.  Nanotechnology  may  also
allow  us  to  create  more  powerful  weapons,  both  lethal  and  non-lethal.  Some  organizations
are  concerned  that  we'll  only  get  around  to  examining  the  ethical  implications  of
nanotechnology in weaponry after these devices are built. They urge scientists and politicians
to  examine  carefully  all  the  possibilities  of  nanotechnology  before  designing  increasingly
powerful weapons.

If nanotechnology in medicine makes it possible for us to enhance ourselves physically, is that
ethical? In theory, medical nanotechnology could make us smarter, stronger and give us other
abilities ranging from rapid healing to night vision. Should we pursue such goals? Could we
continue to call ourselves human, or would we become transhuman -- the next step on man's
evolutionary  path?  Since  almost  every  technology  starts  off  as  very  expensive,  would  this
mean  we'd  create  two  races  of  people  --  a  wealthy  race  of  modified  humans  and  a  poorer
population  of  unaltered  people?  We  don't  have  answers  to  these  questions,  but  several
organizations are urging nanoscientists to consider these implications now, before it becomes
too late.

Not all questions involve altering the human body -- some deal with the world of finance and
economics. If molecular manufacturing becomes a reality, how will that impact the world's
economy? Assuming we can build anything we need with the click of a button, what happens

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to all the manufacturing jobs? If you can create anything using a replicator, what happens to
currency? Would we move to a completely electronic economy? Would we even need money?

Whether  we'll  actually  need  to  answer  all  of  these  questions  is  a  matter  of  debate.  Many
experts  think  that  concerns  like  grey  goo  and  transhumans  are  at  best  premature,  and
probably  unnecessary.  Even  so,  nanotechnology  will  definitely  continue  to  impact  us  as  we
learn more about the enormous potential of the nanoscale.

To learn more about nanotechnology and other subjects, follow the links on the next page.

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NANOMATERIALS

Adapted from Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomaterials).

Nanomaterials is a field that takes a

materials science

-based approach to

nanotechnology

. It

studies materials with morphological features on the

nanoscale

, and especially those that have

special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as
smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension,

[1]

though this term is

sometimes used for even smaller materials.

On 18 October 2011, the

European Commission

adopted the following definition of a

nanomaterial:

[2]

A natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles, in an unbound state or as
an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number
size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range 1 nm – 100 nm. In
specific cases and where warranted by concerns for the environment, health, safety or
competitiveness the number size distribution threshold of 50% may be replaced by a threshold
between 1 and 50%.

An important aspect of nanotechnology is the vastly increased

ratio

of surface area to volume

present in many nanoscale materials, which makes possible new

quantum mechanical

effects.

One example is the “

quantum

size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered

with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from
macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes pronounced when the nanometer size range
is reached. A certain number of

physical properties

also alter with the change from

macroscopic systems. Novel mechanical properties of nanomaterials is a subject of

nanomechanics

research. Catalytic activities also reveal new behaviour in the interaction with

biomaterials

I. Read the passage Nanomaterials and find words or expressions synonymous to:

greatly

become active

very noticeable

necessary or appropriate

the level at which sth starts to happen

being the result of sth

a total number or amount made up of smaller parts

II Work in pairs Student A: read the passage Fullerenes

Student B: read the passage Nanoparticles

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Fullerenes

Rotating view of Buckminsterfullerene C

Main article:

Fullerene

The fullerenes are a class of

allotropes of carbon

which conceptually are

graphene

sheets

rolled into tubes or spheres. These include the

carbon nanotubes

(or

silicon nanotubes

) which

are of interest both because of their mechanical strength and also because of their electrical
properties.

For the past decade, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes have been a hot topic
in the field of research and development, and are likely to continue to be for a long time. In
April 2003, fullerenes were under study for

potential medicinal use

: binding specific

antibiotics

to the structure of resistant

bacteria

and even target certain types of

cancer

cells

such as

melanoma

. The October 2005 issue of Chemistry and Biology contains an article

describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated

antimicrobial

agents. In the field of

nanotechnology

, heat resistance and

superconductivity

are among the properties attracting

intense research.

A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby
graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting

carbon

plasma

arc between the

electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio Quantum Methods applied to
fullerenes. By

DFT

and TDDFT methods one can obtain

Raman

and

spectra. Results

of such calculations can be compared with experimental results

Nanoparticles

Main article:

Nanoparticle

Nanoparticles or

nanocrystals

made of metals, semiconductors, or oxides are of particular

interest for their mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical and other properties.
Nanoparticles have been used as

quantum dots

and as chemical

catalysts

such as

nanomaterial-based catalysts

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Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are effectively a bridge between bulk
materials and

atomic

molecular

structures. A bulk material should have constant physical

properties regardless of its size, but at the nano-scale this is often not the case. Size-dependent
properties are observed such as

quantum confinement

semiconductor

particles,

surface

plasmon resonance

in some metal particles and

superparamagnetism

magnetic

materials.

Nanoparticles exhibit a number of special properties relative to bulk material. For example,
the bending of bulk

copper

(wire, ribbon, etc.) occurs with movement of copper

atoms/clusters at about the 50 nm scale. Copper nanoparticles smaller than 50 nm are
considered super hard materials that do not exhibit the same

malleability

and

ductility

as bulk

copper. The change in properties is not always desirable. Ferroelectric materials smaller than
10 nm can switch their magnetisation direction using room temperature thermal energy, thus
making them useless for memory storage.

Suspensions

of nanoparticles are possible because

the interaction of the particle surface with the

solvent

is strong enough to overcome

differences in

density

, which usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid.

Nanoparticles often have unexpected visual properties because they are small enough to
confine their electrons and produce quantum effects. For example

gold

nanoparticles appear

deep red to black in solution.

The often very high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous
driving force for

diffusion

, especially at elevated temperatures.

Sintering

is possible at lower

temperatures and over shorter durations than for larger particles. This theoretically does not
affect the density of the final product, though flow difficulties and the tendency of
nanoparticles to agglomerate do complicate matters. The surface effects of nanoparticles also
reduces the incipient

melting temperature

Student B

Ask your friend questions to achieve information about the missing parts of the sentences.

1. The fullerenes are.............................

2. These include....................................

3. They are of interest because.....................

4. Potential medicinal applications of fullerenes are....................

5. A common method to produce fullerenes is .........................

Student A:

Ask your friend questions to achieve information about the missing parts of sentences:

1. Nanoparticles are made of.....................................

2. Nanoparticles have been used as...........................

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Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

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NANOMEDICINE

Adapetd from Wikipedia ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomedicine).

Nanomedicine is the

medical

application of

nanotechnology

[1]

Nanomedicine ranges from

the medical applications of

nanomaterials

, to

nanoelectronic

biosensors, and even possible

future applications of

molecular nanotechnology

. Current problems for nanomedicine involve

understanding the issues related to

toxicity

and

environmental impact

nanoscale materials

One nanometer is one-millionth of a millimeter.

Medical use of nanomaterials

Two forms of nanomedicine that have already been tested in

mice

and are awaiting human

trials are using gold nanoshells to help diagnose and treat

cancer

, and using

liposomes

vaccine

adjuvants and as vehicles for drug transport.

[7][8]

Similarly, drug detoxification is also

another application for nanomedicine which has shown promising results in rats.

[9]

A benefit

of using nanoscale for medical technologies is that smaller devices are less invasive and can
possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter.
These devices are faster and more sensitive than typical drug delivery.

[10]

Drug delivery

Nanomedical approaches to

drug delivery

center on developing

nanoscale particles

molecules to improve drug

bioavailability

. Bioavailability refers to the presence of drug

molecules where they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. Drug
delivery focuses on maximizing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a
period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered
devices.

[11][12]

It is all about targeting the molecules and delivering drugs with cell precision.

More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor bioavailability. In vivo imaging is
another area where tools and devices are being developed. Using

nanoparticle

contrast agents

images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. The
new methods of nanoengineered materials that are being developed might be effective in
treating illnesses and diseases such as cancer. What nanoscientists will be able to achieve in
the future is beyond current imagination. This might be accomplished by self assembled
biocompatible nanodevices that will detect, evaluate, treat and report to the clinical doctor
automatically.

Drug delivery systems, lipid- or polymer-based nanoparticles,

[13]

can be designed to improve

the

pharmacological

and therapeutic properties of drugs.

[14]

The strength of drug delivery

systems is their ability to alter the

pharmacokinetics

and

biodistribution

of the drug. When

designed to avoid the body's defence mechanisms,

[15]

nanoparticles have beneficial properties

that can be used to improve drug delivery. Where larger particles would have been cleared
from the body, cells take up these nanoparticles because of their size. Complex drug delivery
mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes
and into cell

cytoplasm

. Efficiency is important because many diseases depend upon

processes within the cell and can only be impeded by drugs that make their way into the cell.
Triggered response is one way for drug molecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are
placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug
with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and

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hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubility.

[16]

Also, a drug may cause tissue

damage, but with drug delivery, regulated drug release can eliminate the problem. If a drug is
cleared too quickly from the body, this could force a patient to use high doses, but with drug
delivery systems clearance can be reduced by altering the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Poor
biodistribution is a problem that can affect normal tissues through widespread distribution, but
the

particulates

from drug delivery systems lower the volume of distribution and reduce the

effect on non-target tissue. Potential nanodrugs will work by very specific and well-
understood mechanisms; one of the major impacts of nanotechnology and nanoscience will be
in leading development of completely new drugs with more useful behavior and less side
effects.

I Comprehension

Read the first two  passages ( introductory paragraph and Drug delivery ) and answer the
questions:

1. What two forms of nanomedicine have already been tested?

2. How does bioavailibility differ from drug delivery?

3. How can nanoparticles improve drug delivery and and bioavailibility?

4. What drug delivery mechanisms employing nanotechnology are being developed?

5. What is triggered response?

6. What problems does the regulated drug release eliminate?

II Note the use of  -ing clauses with the meaning having done something:

  Instead of saying: Drugs activate after they have encountered a particular signal

  we can say:           Drugs activate on encountering a particular signal.

In the following sentences substitute the clauses with "after" with -ing clauses:

1. The scientist switched on the computer after he had entered the laboratory.

2. After the patient had been admitted to hospital, he filled in the form.

3. The company will start the production of the new medicine after they have bought the

    patent.

4. Nanorobots will be introduced for drug delivery, after they have been proved to be  totally

    safe.

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5. This new technology will be implemented after it has been tested on animals.

III Complete the noun forms in the second column.

Verb

Noun

impede

release

clear

approve

assemble

leak

conduct

Adjective

Noun

soluble

efficient

toxic

continuous

internal

immune

IV Read the passage Cancer and find three ways in which nanoparticles can be used in cancer
diagnosing treatment.

English for P

hysics

Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

by Elżbieta Kania (AGH UST ) You are free to display and print these materials for your personal, non-commercial use, but you may not

otherwise reproduce any of the materials without the prior written consent of the owners. You may not distribute copies of the materials in

any form (including by e-mail or other electronic means.)

Cancer

A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be used to
treat cancer.

The small size of nanoparticles endows them with properties that can be very useful in

oncology

, particularly in imaging. Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement

properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging), can produce exceptional images of tumor sites. These
nanoparticles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for
excitation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher
contrast image and at a lower cost than today's organic dyes used as

contrast media

. The

downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually made of quite toxic elements.

Another nanoproperty, high surface area to volume ratio, allows many functional groups to be
attached to a nanoparticle, which can seek out and bind to certain

tumor cells

. Additionally,

the small size of nanoparticles (10 to 100 nanometers), allows them to preferentially
accumulate at tumor sites (because tumors lack an effective lymphatic drainage system). A
very exciting research question is how to make these imaging nanoparticles do more things
for cancer. For instance, is it possible to manufacture multifunctional nanoparticles that would
detect, image, and then proceed to treat a tumor? This question is under vigorous
investigation; the answer to which could shape the future of cancer treatment.

[25]

A promising

new cancer treatment that may one day replace radiation and chemotherapy is edging closer to
human trials.

Kanzius RF

therapy attaches microscopic nanoparticles to cancer cells and then

"cooks" tumors inside the body with radio waves that heat only the nanoparticles and the
adjacent (cancerous) cells.

Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other
biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and diagnosis of cancer in
the early stages from a few drops of a patient's blood.

[26]

English for P

hysics

Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

by Elżbieta Kania (AGH UST ) You are free to display and print these materials for your personal, non-commercial use, but you may not

otherwise reproduce any of the materials without the prior written consent of the owners. You may not distribute copies of the materials in

any form (including by e-mail or other electronic means.)

The basic point to use drug delivery is based upon three facts: a) efficient encapsulation of the
drugs, b) successful delivery of said drugs to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful
release of that drug there.

Researchers at

Rice University

under Prof. Jennifer West, have demonstrated the use of

120 nm diameter

nanoshells

coated with gold to kill cancer tumors in mice. The nanoshells

can be targeted to bond to cancerous cells by conjugating

antibodies

peptides

to the

nanoshell surface. By irradiating the area of the tumor with an infrared laser, which passes
through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death to the cancer
cells.

[27]

Nanoparticles

cadmium selenide

(

quantum dots

) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light.

When injected, they seep into

cancer

tumors

. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use

it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal.

photodynamic therapy

, a particle is placed within the body and is illuminated with light

from the outside. The light gets absorbed by the particle and if the particle is metal, energy
from the light will heat the particle and surrounding tissue. Light may also be used to produce
high energy oxygen molecules which will chemically react with and destroy most organic
molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This therapy is appealing for many reasons. It
does not leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout the body (chemotherapy)
because it is directed where only the light is shined and the particles exist. Photodynamic
therapy has potential for a noninvasive procedure for dealing with diseases, growth and
tumors.

V What other medical applications of nanotechnology have you heard of?

VI Read the passage Neuroelectronic Interfaces and answer the following questions:

1. What is neuro-electronic interfacing and what does it require?

2. What might its future advantages be?

3. What are the two possible power sources for the application in neuro-electronic
interfacing?

4. What are the practical limitations to this innovation?

Neuro-electronic interfaces

Neuro-electronic interfacing is a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nanodevices
that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires
the building of a molecular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses
by an external computer. The computers will be able to interpret, register, and respond to
signals the body gives off when it feels sensations. The demand for such structures is huge
because many diseases involve the decay of the nervous system (ALS and multiple sclerosis).
Also, many injuries and accidents may impair the nervous system resulting in dysfunctional

English for P

hysics

Teaching materials for students at AGH UST Krakow, Poland

by Elżbieta Kania (AGH UST ) You are free to display and print these materials for your personal, non-commercial use, but you may not

otherwise reproduce any of the materials without the prior written consent of the owners. You may not distribute copies of the materials in

any form (including by e-mail or other electronic means.)

systems and paraplegia. If computers could control the nervous system through neuro-
electronic interface, problems that impair the system could be controlled so that effects of
diseases and injuries could be overcome. Two considerations must be made when selecting
the power source for such applications. They are refuelable and nonrefuelable strategies. A
refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continuously or periodically with external sonic,
chemical, tethered, magnetic, or electrical sources. A nonrefuelable strategy implies that all
power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained.

One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference is a possibility. Electric
fields,

electromagnetic pulses (EMP)

, and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices can

all cause interference. Also, thick insulators are required to prevent electron leakage, and if
high conductivity of the in vivo medium occurs there is a risk of sudden power loss and
“shorting out.” Finally, thick wires are also needed to conduct substantial power levels
without overheating. Little practical progress has been made even though research is
happening. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned
precisely in the nervous system so that it is able to monitor and respond to nervous signals.
The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body’s immune
system so that they will remain unaffected in the body for a long time.

[30]

In addition, the

structures must also sense ionic currents and be able to cause currents to flow backward.
While the potential for these structures is amazing, there is no timetable for when they will be
available