visual traditions >
After the conversion from Zoroastrianism to Islam — a religion in which figuarative symbols were avoided — Persian art continued its visual practices. Persian miniatures are great examples of such attempts. The deliberate lack of perspective enabled the artist to have different plots and sub-plots within the same image space.
Similiar form of this kind of narration was dramatic performance art called Pardeh-Khani. The picture was placed on the wall of coffee house – outside or inside – depending how many people wanted to watch the performance. Coffeehouses, were the main forums for cultural interactions between people. Pardeh-khan (narrator) was poiting at the elements of painting as the story progressed.
This style of painting falls within the category of folk art. Prevalent styles of epic mural paintings tooks ground since the reign of the Safavids in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Coffeehouse paintings can be thematically divided into two groups: religious and epic. The religious paintings are a collection of images of the leaders of the Shi’a sect and scenes from the battles of the Karbala. The non-religious epic paintings portraying imaginary faces of the national heroes and kings in the context of stories described in the Shãhnãme.
Another type of art in the same category was Naqqali. A Naqqal (or storyteller) did an entertaining performance usually in coffeehouses, but without the help of the picture. So, Naqqal had to possess a good voice as well as theatrical talent. He was reciting original tales but also relied on his imagination and improvise according to the audience's feedback
Other than-popular dramatic performance arts, before the advent of cinema in Iran, are Khaymeshab-bazi (puppet show), Saye-bazi (shadow plays), Rouhozi (comical acts)
Khaymeh-shab-bazi is the Persian traditional puppetry which is performed in a small chamber. There are two people involved in the performance: a musical performer and a person called morshed. The dialogue is between morshed and the puppets. The method of performance, is unique and distinguish it from other types of puppetry. Puppetry is still quite common in Iran
The traditional dramatic performance arts had big influence on cinema, both on a practical and sociopolitical level.
The naqqal – or storyteller, of the coffeehouse moved into the cinema to narrate silent movies. Most of the audience was illiterate so they could not write subtitles of their own. Storyteller was very popular until the inception of sound film and dubbing.
Of more importance was the influence of TA’ZIJE
ta'zieh means Condolence Theater – the passion play.
Literary translation of world “ta’zieh” means “consolation”
This is a play that recalls and enacts the death of Hossein at the battle of Karbala in 680 and other events related to it. In Persian tradition, both Tazieh and Parde-khani, inspired by historical and religious events, symbolize epic spirit and resistance. The common theme is the hero tales of love and sacrifice, and of resistance against the evil. The purpose of tazieh is not entertainment but religious ritual
Ta’zije is both dramatic form and an expiation ritual. Developpment of ta’zije coincided with the emergence of Shiism1
In 16th century as soon as the Safavid Dynasty was established in Persia and the Shiism was adopted as the official sect, the theater became a tool of propagating Shiism. So, tazieh also served a sociopolitical function.
Although these shows are also performed among Shiite Turks in Central Asia and Shiite Arab communities in Iraq and elsewhere, Iran is their centre. This type of drama is an expression of Persian patriotism and piety. Both elements combining in an expression of the national religion, Shiism.
Ta’zije takes place during the first 10 days of the month of Muharram which is the first month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Most plays form a set of tragedies, performed as passion plays on these 10 successive days. This sequence of tragedies representing Shiite martyrdom.
During the 10 days of Muharram men walk in the processions flagellate/hit their bodies with chains, shouting in religious extasy. The culmination is at The Day of Ashura is on the 10th day of Muharram. The play describing the martyrdom of Ali Hussain and his family used to be presented in the large mosques. When the mosques is too small, it was given a special place.
The incidents are not necessarily presented in chronological order, because everybody knows the story. The actors are nonprofessional but very enthusiastic. The usually don’t know the text by heart – they read it from pieces of paper. What is more strange to Westerner viewer, usually several actors the role of one character in front of the same audience. Female character are performed by male actors. Such conventions are readily accepted by the audience without the confusion.
Moreover, the audience identifies itself very closely with the play – most people are crying. The actors playing the opponents of Ali Hussain are sometimes attacked and beaten at the end of the play. The decor, too, is half-realistic and half-symbolic: river is represented by the pot of water, man wearing sunglasses is the bad one. Some examples of unrealistic effects: Husayn’s head is chopped off but can speaks. To achieve this effect The people are using modern devices – magnetophone is place inside big head made of paper.
The horses are real, although most of the other animals are played by humans, for example - lion. Also many gestures are symbolic – for example – decapitation.
In some ways it reminds passions dramas in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska.
Taziyas were especially popular through the Qajar dynasty (who ruled Persia from 18th century) until the early twentieth century2.
Sociopolitical function of ta’ziye was lost in 1932 when Reza Shah introduced royal decree banning it. The shah’ s desire was to weaken the power of religion over the masses of people. It was a part of his modernization program which resulted in a policy of secularization. Reza Shah privileged Western-style progress at the expense of archaic religious custom. Because of policy of secularization Ta’ziye were mostly abandoned in the large cities by the early 1940s. Nonetheless, taziyas continued to exist in Iran on a smaller scale especially in more rural and traditional areas.
Influence on cinema
Aesthetically, the ta’ziye had big influence on the early Iranian films. The tazieh uses little scenery and few props, relying instead on an audience’s imagination and placing importance on the actors. These features carried over into early film productions. But it is also possible to see it’s influence on contemporary film. Good example is film “Travellers” by Bahram Bayzai. The actors are introducing themselves to the camera. This device is agaist the rules of Hollywood movies which are trying to hide the fact that we are watching film. It is the tribute to persian theater tradition both "pardeh-khani" and ta’zije where the narrator addresses the spectators. I will go back to this topic later.
The Advent of Cinema in Iran
Iran throughout its history has been a melting pot for other cultures. (It was the time) especially from since the conquest of Alexander of Macedonia (334 BCE). Repeated introductions of new cultures through conquerors and trade have developed a kind of social filtration system. This system absorbs only the useful aspects of the imposed external cultures. As early as the fifth century BCE, the Greak historian Herodotus remarked:
“There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persian. As soon they hear of any luxury they instantly make it their own.”
This process of overcoming conquerors by assimilation has led to survival and transformation of traditional cultural codes. They have to come to find expression in a unique forms. Perhaps the best example is the way in which Iranian accepted islam. While adopting new religion they rejected Arab culture. They adapted Islam to their pre-Islamic Persian culture. The result of this process in Shia sect of islam which appeals to Iranian nationalism.
So, for many centuries Iranians learnt how to accept and transform different cultural influences to suit their own needs. This factor made it easier for Iran to adopt the western-originated cinema. Indeed, one of the defining aspects of Iranian cinema has been his ability to assimilate established cinematic codes and fashion them into new forms.
entertainment
Before the advent of cinema in Iran, entertainment was a luxury afforded by only a small, rich segment of the population. Great majority of the people had no money to spare. In this situation for the working classes entertainment was of secondary importance. Rich entertained themselves with hunting, music and singing, ceremonial chess parties, watching the performances of comedians and listening to entertaining stories.
What is important: at the turn of the 19th century persian intelligentsia was very impressed by the cultural and technological advancements of European countries.
Qajar Dynasty
is an Iranian royal family who ruled Persia from 1794 to 1925. During Nasser-e-Din Shah's reign, the fourth from the dynasty, Western science, technology, and educational methods were introduced into Persia and the country's modernization was begun. He borrowed the money from abroad to finance expensive trips to Europe. These trips were part of a strategy to put Persia on the map as an independent, ancient but civilized state. The trips in this field were rather successful, but he was not able to prevent Britain and Russia from encroaching into regions of traditional Persian influence. As a result of the Anglo-Persian War 1856, Britain took the control on ancient city Heart and also extended its control to other areas of the Persian Gulf during the 19th century. Most of Persian economic affairs remained largely under British control.
The next shah Muzaffar ad-Din, continued the policy of modernization. At the very begining of 19 century (in 1900) Muzaffar ad-Din visited to International Exhibition in Paris. During his visit in France he saw the cinematograph of Lumiere brothers. He was very fascinated with moving pictures and he wrote in his diary: „the machine project on the wall and shows people in motion”. Shah ordered his official photographer to buy equipment for film making. In the same year during shah visit in Belgium, the photographer Mirza Ebrahim Khan made first iranian film. So, Mirza Ebrahim Khan can be remembered as a first iranian filmmaker. When they came back to Iran he filmed the Shah's private and religious ceremonies. The early film making in Iran was supported by the royalty of the time who were interested only in documenting his life. They used camera like average people do today – filming weddings, birth ceremonies, circumcision celebrations and another important events. Therefore, some of films from this period are newsreels of activities, such as royal and religious ceremonies. These documentaries were mostly screened in the royal palace. It was also possible to see these newsreels at the homes of dignitaries. Watching movies was a diversion for royal court and aristocracy.
Here we can see the main difference between development of cinema in Iran and in the West. In USA and in Europe the cinema was born as a mass entertainment medium. When cinema came to Iran it was a diversion for the high class for about ten years. Later it turned into a mass entertainment medium.
WHICH WERE THE RESULTS OF POPULARITY OF CINEMA?
In the West, cinema coexisted with popular forms of entertainment such as theaters or traveling musical shows. But in Iran, cinema replaced most forms of mass entertainment. At least in the cities. They remained only in province
Although Ta’zieh enjoyed the patronage of the dynasty, the souvenir which Shah brough back from France, soon turned out to be strong rival for the religious drama.
THE POPULARIZATION OF CINEMA (infrastructures, cinema theaters)
The first public movie theatre was open in Tabriz city by Christian missionaries. But it was non-comercial cinema.
The first public commercial cinema was established Ebrahim Khan Sahafbashi - antique dealer. On the way back from Europe he bought the cinematograph and Edison Kinetoscope. In 1905 he converted the backyard of his antique shop into an open air movie house. The customers were mostly members of upper class families.
But the man who started cinema in Iran as a permanent institution was Ardashes Batmagerian, the Armenian. He open his movie theatre in 1912 with the cooperation of French company Pathe.
Following the 1917 revolution in Russia, rich emigrants arrive to Russia and started investing money in many economic fields. Some of them invested in movie theatres. Film as a form of entertainment has becoming more and more popular. What is more – the film was the essence of the West, its recommendation.
But there were some obstacles/ difficulties in development of cinema. The Moslem clergy prejudiced the vast majority of people against anything new. For many centuries ulama (literary: learned men) educated religious leaders have been very important group in Iranian society. Some influential ulamas declared that watching films in a big sin. For this reason, the religious people didn’t dare to go to the movies. So, from the conservative side there was social pressure against the showing of films and the establishment of movie theaters.
Another problem was the division of sexes in public places. For this reason, women were not allowed to go to movie theaters. In 1926 in the Zoroastrian school in Tehran was open the theater devoted to showing films to women only. The theatre manager was called the corrupter of society. Why? In the program there was film about acrobatic show. Despite of these opinion, the movie theatre for women became more and more fashionable. One bad incident has good impact on development of cinemas. Some religious fanatic set the fire in cinema for ladies. After this event, the owners claimed that women will be safer in the company of husband or brothers. The result was mixed audience in movie theatres. The cinemas was the first public space when man and woman can sit together.
Makmalbaf > Images from Qajar
In 1921, the British government by supporting Reza Khan – officer in persian brigade overthrew Ahmad Shah, the last member of Qajar dynasty. Reza Khan later called himself Reza Shah and established the Pahlavi dynasty.
Reza Shah had ambitious plans for modernizing Iran. These plans included developing industry, building a cross-country railroad system, establishing a national public education system. He sent hundreds of Iranians, including his son, to Europe for training. During 16 years Reza Shah transformed Iran into an urbanized country. Public education progressed rapidly, and new social classes developed. A professional middle class and an industrial working class had emerged.