The English Language

Verbs

Nouns

Articles

Adjectives

Adverbs

Pronouns

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Capitalization

Time & Numbers

Sentence Structure

Contractions

Similar Sounding Words with Different Meanings

I. The English Language

1. Background

2. Parts of Speech

3. American (US) & British English

1. Background

English is the most widely spoken European language in the world with over 350 million native speakers -- about one-tenth of the world's population. It has become the almost universal language of aviation, commerce, medicine, technology, computer science, publishing, mass media and other endeavors.

English is the major language of the United States, the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Guyana, Jamaica, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Trinidad & Tobago, Barbados and Belize. English is also the major secondary language of Ireland, Israel, South Africa, Kenya, Nigeria, the Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia, Ghana, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Burma, Hong Kong, Malaysia and the Philippines. In total, there are well over 750 million people in the world who speak English. Some would place the number at over a billion.

Of the world's almost 2,700 languages, English has arguably the richest vocabulary with over 500,000 catalogued words and an equal number of uncatalogued scientific and technical terms. In comparison, German has a vocabulary of approximately 185,000 words and French fewer than 100,000.

While the roots of English are Germanic and Scandinavian, it also has many Latin influences. English has also adopted numerous words from other languages and peoples. Such words as kosher, glitch, bagel, and schlock (Yiddish), pagoda (Portuguese), bonanza, adobe, mesa, maroon and rancher (Spanish), teepee, tomato, hickory, squash, raccoon, opposum, moose and toboggan (Native American), façade, rendevous, butte, dessert, saloon and depot (French), voodoo, jazz, banjo, yam, cola, tote and zombie (African), sleigh, stoop, boss, cookie and waffle (Dutch), hooligan and speakeasy (Irish), pretzel, kindergarten, flak and hoodlum (German), pasta, spaghetti, macaroni and ravioli (Italian), smorgasbord (Scandanavia) and many others all found there way into English from other languages. Conversely, English has contributed numerous words to other languages.

2. Parts of Speech

he English language is made up of eight basic types of words or parts of speech:

• nouns

• pronouns

• verbs

• adjectives

• adverbs

• prepositions

• conjunctions

• interjections

An individual word can often serve more than a single grammatical function depending upon its exact placement in a sentence. Consequently, the same word can be a different type of word or part of speech in different sentences. For example, the English word help is a noun (a thing) when used in this sentence:

We were grateful for his help.

But the same English word help is a verb (an action) when used in a different way in a different sentence:

They help every week by cleaning the classroom.

Because many single English words can work in different ways, you should always first determine how the word functions within a sentence before labeling it as a specific part of speech.

3. American (US) & British English

While there are many different varieties of English, American (US) English and British English are the two major forms used in the world today. Most other varieties of English are based at least somewhat on one of these two major forms. While both the Americans and the British use numerous idiomatic expressions, slang, words and phrases that are exclusively their own, the other major difference between these two major varieties of English are spelling and pronunciation and, to a lesser extent, punctuation and capitalization.

Pronunciation

There is a wide range of different pronunciations of both American (US) and British English but what can be called "general American" and "general British" pronunciation is usually considered the "average." These "general" forms of pronunciation are most often used by newscasters on national radio and television programs. Tune in.

Spelling

There are a few major areas of difference between British and American spelling, for example:

British English	American English
neighbour	neighbor
labour	labor
vapour	vapor
flavour	flavor
colour	color
humour	humor
parlour	parlor
authorise	authorize
apologise	apologize
theatre	theater
centre	center
metre	meter
kilometre	kilometer
millimetre	millimeter
program	programme
milligram	milligramme
kilogram	kilogramme
cheque	check
traveller	traveler
jewellery	jewelry
cancelled	canceled
licence	license
defence	defense
offence	offense
cozy	cosy
grey	gray

Word Differences

There are also word and phrase differences between British and American English, for example:

British English	American English
flat	apartment
skirting board	baseboard
crisps	potato chips
chemist	druggist
India rubber	eraser
motorway	freeway
chips	french fries
garters	suspenders
rubbish	trash/garbage
petrol	gas/gasoline
bonnet (car)	hood (car)
paraffin	kerosene
nappy	diaper
lift	elevator
lorry	truck
let	rent/lease
post	mail
flyover	overpass
car park	parking lot
sultana	raisin
pavement	sidewalk
tube/underground	subway
fortnight	two weeks
vest	undershirt
holiday	vacation
face flannel	wash cloth
windscreen	windshield
waistcoat	vest
nought/nil	zero

II. Verbs

Types of Verbs

Regular Verbs

Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have)

Irregular Verbs

Verb Tense

Participles

1. Types of Verbs

A verb is a word that expresses an action, an occurrence or a state of being. All English verbs can be classified as either:

Regular Verbs (follow a standard set pattern to form the various tenses)

Irregular Verbs (follow no standard set pattern and require separate attention)

Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have) (are used with participles to form different tenses of verbs)

Regular Verbs (follow a standard set pattern to form the various tenses)

The majority of English verbs are regular and change their form by adding -s, -ing, -ed or -d the infinitive or basic verb. Regular English Verbs all have four forms.

Infinitive/Basic Verb PresentTense PresentParticiple PastParticiple

---- +s +ing +ed or +d

repeat repeats repeating repeated

play plays playing played

talk talks talking talked

drop drops dropping dropped

walk walks walking walked

Irregular Verbs (follow no standard set pattern and require separate attention)

English irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in a number of different ways. The following list includes the most common irregular English verbs.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

arise arose arisen

awake awoke/awaked awoken/awaked

be was/were been

bear bore borne/born

beat beat beaten/beat

become became become

befall befell befallen

begin began begun

behold beheld beheld

bend bent bent

beset beset beset

bet bet/betted bet/betted

bid bid bid

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten/bit

bleed bled bled

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

build built built

burn burned/burnt burned/burnt

burst burst burst

buy bought bought

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cling clung clung

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

cut cut cut

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

dive dived/dove dived

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt

drink drank drunk

drive drove driven

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

fit fitted/fit (A) fitted/fit (A)

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbid forbid/forbade (B) forbidden

forecast forecast forecast

forget forgot forgotten/forgot (A)

forgive forgave forgiven

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

get got got/gotten (A)

give gave given

go gone went

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hang hung hung/hanged

have had had

hear heard heard

hide hid hidden/hid

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

kneel kneeled/knelt (B) kneeled/knelt (B)

know knew known

lay (put down) laid laid

lead led led

lean leaned/leant (B) leaned/leant (B)

leap leapt/leaped leapt/leaped

learn learned/learnt (B) learned/learnt (B)

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie (rest/recline) lay lain

light lit/lighted lit/lighted

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

mistake mistook mistaken

mow mowed mown/mowed

must (have to) had to had to

pay paid paid

put put put

quit quit quit

read read read

rid rid/ridded rid/ridded

ride rode ridden

ring rang/rung rung

rise rose risen

saw sawed sawn

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send send sent

set set set

shake shook shaken

shall should ---

shear sheared shorn/sheared

shed shed shed

shine shone shone

shoot shot shot

show showed shown

shrink shrank shrunk

shut shut shut

sing sang/sung (A) sung

sink sank/sunk (A) sunk

sit sat sat

slay slew slain

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid

sling slung slung

slit slit slit

smell smelled/smelt (B) smelled/smelt (B)

sow sowed sown/sowed

speak spoke spoken

speed sped/speeded sped/speeded

spell spelled spelled

spend spent spent

spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt

spin spun spun

spit spat spat

split split split

spoil spoiled spoiled

spread spread spread

spring sprang sprung

stand stood stood

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stank stunk

stride strode strode

strike struck struck/stricken

strive strove striven

swear swore sworn

swell swelled swollen/swelled

swim swam/swum (A) swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden

understand understood understood

upset upset upset

wake woke/waked woken/waken

wear wore worn

weave wove/weaved woven/weaved

wed wed/wedded wed/wedded

weep wept wept

win won won

wind wound wound

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

2. Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have) (are used with participles to form different tenses of verbs)

The auxiliary verbs be and have are both used with participles to form different verb tenses. Shall is used more in British English and will is used more in American English.

be

Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Future Future Perfect

I am I was I have been I had been I shall be I shall have been

he is he was he has been he had been he will be he will have been

she is she was she has been she had been she will be she will have been

we are we were we have been we had been we shall be we shall have been

you are you were you have been you had been you will be you will have been

they are they were they have been they had been they will be they will have been

have

Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect Future Future Perfect

I have I had I have had I had had I shall have I shall have had

he has he had he has had he had had he will have he will have had

she has she had she has had she had had she will have she will have had

we have we had we have had we had had we shall have we will have had

you have you had you have had you had had you will have you will have had

they have they had they have had they had had they will have they will have had

Verb Tense

Both regular and irregular verbs follow the same rules of tense:

Present Tense

Present Continuous Tense

Past Tense

Past Continous Tense

Future Tense

Future Perfect Tense

Present Tense

With the exception of the third-person singular, the Present Tense uses the infinitive as the verb form. The third-person singular takes the infinitive with an s added:

Verb to arrive Verb to listen

I arrive I listen

he arrives he listens

she arrives she listens

we arrive we listen

you arrive you listen

they arrive they listen

The Present Tense is used:

1 To express a present state or action:

I feel ill.

They (will/shall) arrive on Wednesday.

She arrives Sunday.

He listens carefully, doesn't he?

2 To express general or universal truths:

Jack likes music.

England is in Europe.

She is very pretty.

Time is money.

3 To express a firm intention, a refusal and for orders as an alternative to the imperative tense:

I will do it.

They will be here tonight.

I am not going.

You must go immediately.

Present Continuous Tense

The Present Continuous Tense is formed by using the Present Tense of the verb to be followed by the Present Participle.

Verb to arrive Verb to listen

I am arriving I am listening

he is arriving he is listening

we are arriving we are listening

you are arriving you are listening

they are arriving they are listening

The Present Continuous Tense is used instead of the Present Tense when the action is continuous, for example:

Present Tense Present Continuous

It rains. It is raining.

She goes. She is going.

I read. I am reading.

He sleeps. He is sleeping.

We argue. We are arguing.

They depart. They are departing.

Past Tense

The Past Tense of all Regular Verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive of verbs ending in a consonant and d to the infinitive of verbs ending in a vowel (usually e):

Verb to arrive Verb to listen

I arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

you arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

he arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

she arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

we arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

you arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

they arrive + d = arrived listen + ed = listened

The Past Tense is used to express actions or events that took place in the past and are now finished or completed:

I listened to the radio.

She arrived on Sunday.

He listened carefully.

They followed us.

We finished dinner.

You listened to what?

They arrived Sunday.

Past Continous Tense

The Past Continuous Tense is formed by using the Past Tense of the verb be = was/were followed by the Present Participle:

Pronoun Verb to arrive Verb to listen

I was + arriving = was arriving was + listening = was listening

you was + arriving = was arriving was + listening = was listening

he was + arriving = was arriving was + listening = was listening

she was + arriving = was arriving was + listening = was listening

we were + arriving = were arriving were + listening = were listening

you were + arriving = were arriving were + listening = were listening

they were + arriving = were arriving were + listening = were listening

The Past Continuous Tense is often used to describe actions which took place in the past and happened in conjunction with another occurrence:

I was arriving home when I met George.

He was listening to the radio when his mother entered the room.

They were listening carefully but then he stopped talking.

We were listening to his speech when the electricity went off.

Future Tense

The Future Tense is formed by adding will or shall before the infinitive of the verb:

Pronoun Verb to arrive Verb to listen

I shall + arrive = shall arrive shall + listen = shall listen

I will + arrive = will arrive will + listen = will listen

he/she shall + arrive = shall arrive shall + listen = shall listen

he/she will + arrive = will arrive will + listen = will listen

we shall + arrive = shall arrive shall + listen = shall listen

we will + arrive = will arrive will + listen = will listen

you shall + arrive = shall arrive shall + listen = shall listen

you will + arrive = will arrive will + listen = will listen

they shall + arrive = shall arrive shall + listen = shall listen

they will + arrive = will arrive will + listen = will listen

The Future Tense is used to describe an event which will be completed some time in the future:

I will/shall arrive in London tomorrow.

He will/shall answer the letter in the morning.

We shall/will watch television tonight.

They will wash the car Tuesday.

Future Perfect Tense

The Future Perfect Tense is formed by adding shall have or will have before the Past Participle of the verb:

Pronoun Verb to arrive

I shall have + arrived = shall have arrived

I will have + arrived = will have arrived

he/she shall have + arrived = shall have arrived

he/she will have + arrived = will have arrived

we shall have + arrived = shall have arrived

we will have + arrived = will have arrived

you shall have + arrived = shall have arrived

you will have + arrived = will have arrived

they shall have + arrived = shall have arrived

they will have + arrived = will have arrived

Pronoun Verb to listen

I shall have + listened = shall have listened

I will have + listened = will have listened

he/she shall have + listened = shall have listened

he/she will have + listened = will have listened

we shall have + listened = shall have listened

we will have + listened = will have listened

you shall have + listened = shall have listened

you will have + listened = will have listened

they shall have + listened = shall have listened

they will have + listened = will have listened

The Future Perfect Tense is used to describe an event or action that will be completed at some time in the future:

I will/shall have listened to ten lectures by next week.

I will/shall have finished reading the book by Sunday.

He shall/will have arrived by the time the taxi gets here.

They will/shall have completed the project by tomorrow.

Participles

Present Participle

The Present Participle of English verbs is formed by adding -ing to the stem of the infinitive and is subject to certain rules:

1 If the infinitive ends in e preceded by a consonant, then, the e is omitted and ing is added to the stem, for example, (to) choose - e + ing = choosing or (to) become - e + ing = becoming.

2 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by another consonant or a "long sounding" vowel, then, ing is added to the infinitive. For example, (to) grow + ing = growing or (to) lend + ing = lending or (to) spring + ing = springing.

3 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by two vowels, then, ing is added to the infinitive. For example, (to) creep + ing = creeping, (to) shoot + ing = shooting or (to) speak + ing = speaking.

4 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by a "short sounding" vowel, then, the last consonant is doubled and ing

is then added. For example, (to) cut + t + ing = cutting or (to) dig + g +ing = digging or (to) shed + d + ing = shedding.

5 If the infinitive ends in a double vowel, then, ing is added to the infinitive. For example, (to) see + ing = seeing.

Past Participle

The Past Participle of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed to the infinitive of verbs ending in a consonant, and d to those ending in e. For example, (to) arrest + ed = arrested; (to) flourish + ed = flourished; (to) besiege + d = besieged; (to) consume + d = consumed.

For Irregular Verbs, the participles are unique and must be learned individually with the verb tenses.

Nouns

Nouns are words used to name people, animals, places, things, qualities or ideas. All English nouns are neuter. Gender also does not affect the English article, adjective or verb. In all cases, the is the only definite article used in English and a and an are the only indefinite articles. Forming Plural Nouns in English is usually accomplished by adding s or es to the end of the noun.

Person Place Thing Quality

Mary classroom lion happiness

Robert street computer courage

professor New York pencil sincerity

British lake justice intelligence

Nouns can also be further categorized as common, proper, collective, mass or compound. Common nouns name any class of people, places or things; proper nouns name specific people, places and things; collective nouns name groups of people or things; mass nouns name qualities or things that cannot necessarily be physically counted; compound nouns can be made up of two or more words that can be combined to form a single word or a hyphenated word.

Common Proper Collective Mass Compound

boy Mary team fury airport terminal

ocean Danube River family flour train station

street Elm Street neighbors sand classroom

dress Lake Erie crowd weakness polar ice cap

kitchen California audience confusion street traffic

car London citizens strength mother-in-law

1 Most singular nouns are made plural by adding s to the end:

Singular Plural

book books

American Americans

river rivers

ocean oceans

car cars

scene scenes

street streets

mountain mountains

girl girls

cat cats

train trains

case cases

ticket tickets

flower flowers

plate plates

cup cups

cake cakes

cap caps

map maps

2 Many (but not all) nouns ending in a double letter (usually ss) are made plural by adding es to the end:

Singular Plural

butt butts

glass glasses

mass masses

compass compasses

match matches

bush bushes

wish wishes

kiss kisses

3 Some nouns of foreign origin ending in eau use an x for form the plural:

Singular Plural

bandeau beandeaux

4 Exceptions:

(A) If the noun ends in y and is preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es:

Singular Plural

sky sky - y + i + es = skies

comedy comedy - y + i + es = comedies

If the noun ends in y and is preceded by a vowel, the y is retained and only an s is added:

Singular Plural

toy toys

boy boys

(B) If the noun ends in fe, change the fe to ve and add s:

Singular Plural

knife knife - fe + ve + s = knives

(C) A few nouns ending in o use es to form the plural:

Singular Plural

potato potatoes

Negro Negroes

(D) Many nouns are irregular in the plural form. You will need to consult an English dictionary for the plural forms of irregular verbs.

Singular Plural

radius radii

foot feet

man men

woman women

wife wives

leaf leaves

ox oxen

mouse mice

alumnus alumni

goose geese

child children

sheep sheep

sheaf sheaves

Articles

Definite Article

Indefinite Article

Demonstratives

Possesives

Definite Article

The English Definite Article has only one form -- the.

the book

the idea

the woman

the man

the newspaper

the boy

the girl

the glass

the law

the lion

the lioness

the country

the street

the state

the table

the train

the car

the glass

the cup

the meal

the dog

the cat

the room

the house

Indefinite Article

The English Indefinite Article has only one form -- a -- and should be used when the Indefinite Article is followed by a word staring with a consonant. When the Indefinite Article is followed by a word starting with a vowel (a, e, i, o, or u), a must be changed to an:

a book

a man

a woman

a car

a library

a street

a house

a table

a door

an article

an apple

an application

an edge

an eagle

an egg

an historic (exception)

an idea

an indication

an index

an opal

an option

an opinion

an umbrella

an ungrateful son

Demonstratives

In English, the Demonstrative Articles (also called Demonstrative Pronouns) are:

this

that

each

every

some

many

such

all

which

The Demonstrative Articles precede the noun to which they refer:

this man

this magazine

that woman

that book

each person

every article

some folk

many people

such details

all men

which side

Possesives

Possessive Articles (also known as Possessive Pronouns) and are formed from the normal pronoun:

Pronoun Possessive

I mine

he his

she her

it its

we our

you your

they their

That coat is mine.

That is his bicycle.

This is her book.

Its outcome is certain.

Our house is painted green.

Your bus is late.

They put their coats on before going outside.

Adjectives

An Adjective is a descriptive word which helps qualify or modify a noun. There are two forms of English adjectives:

1 Simple Adjectives using base words such as happy, sad, good, bad, fast, slow, yellow, red, et cetera, new, old, pretty, ugly, et cetera.

2 Derived Adjectives formed by adding a suffix to a base noun or verb, for example:

fashion + able = fashionable

forget + ful = forgetful

hero + ic = heroic

fool + ish = foolish

attract + ive = attractive

humor + ous = humorous

health + y = healthy

In English, the Adjective usually precedes the noun to which it refers:

Two red cars are parked on the street.

A new world record was set today.

That was a humorous story.

I bought two new books.

She bought a fashionable dress.

He has two new cars.

She is an attractive woman.

That was a terrible book.

It was a boring trip.

Often, the Adjective(s) describing the noun can follow the verb:

His two cars are new and fashionable.

His new car is red and fast.

Her new dress is green.

My car is old.

Our trip was boring.

That book was terrible.

Our trip was boring.

Adverbs

Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifiers and help to qualify, limit or make other words in a sentence clearer or more specific.

Forming Adverbs

Use of Adverbs

Forming Adverbs

Many English Adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective. Sometimes, if the adjective ends in e, the e is omitted before -ly is added:

adjective adverb

new + ly = newly

pleasant + ly = pleasantly

hesitant + ly = hesitantly

clear + ly = clearly

near + ly = nearly

close + ly = closely

dear + ly = dearly

cost + ly = costly

affordable -e + ly = affordably

experimental + ly = experimentally

Some words are exclusively Adverbs:

there

very

here

almost

Use of Adverbs

Adverbs are often used to quantify a verb but, as an adverb intensifier, they can also quantify adjectives and other adverbs:

With a Verb

Adverbs are used to qualify verbs and often follow the verb in the sentence:

The river flows smoothly.

The time went quickly.

The bus arrived promptly at 3:00 o'clock.

With An Adjective

Adverbs can also be used to qualify an adjective. In such a case, the Adverb usually precedes the adjective it is qualifying:

The cake is almost gone.

That is a very boring book.

It was unbelievably cold.

With An Adverb

An Adverb may be used to qualify another Adverb. In such cases, it precedes the Adverb which it qualifies:

Her hair is amazingly silky.

Pronouns

A Pronoun is a word that can substitute or be used in place noun or a group of words that function as a noun. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Reflexive, Indefinite, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Relative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns refer to specific people and are categorized in three ways:

first-person pronouns -------> refer to the speaker

second-person pronouns --> refer to the person spoken to

third-person pronouns ------> refer to the person, place or thing spoken about

first-person singular first-person plural second-person third person

I we you he

me us your him

my our yours his

mine ours she

her

hers

they

them

their

theirs

it

its

All Personal Pronouns can used as the subject of a sentence:

I am going shopping.

He took the wrong road.

His car is green.

She is working hard.

Her purse was stolen.

It is a black cat.

Its paw is sore.

We went shopping yesterday.

Our bus is late.

You must always remember to do well.

Your hair is pretty.

They were here last Tuesday.

Their trip was postponed.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns are used when the action of the verb applies to the subject of the sentence.

Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun

I myself

he himself

she herself

it itself

we ourselves

you yourself/yourselves

they themselves

I cut myself yesterday.

I myself don't like it.

He bought himself a new car.

He himself is responsible.

She cooked herself a wonderful meal.

We bought ourselves a box of chocolates.

You gave yourself quite a shock.

They washed themselves in the river.

You yourself need to be aware.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns can be substituted for a noun but do not define precisely what or who they refer to:

One should always be careful with fire.

There were only three of them, you see.

Some people just never understand.

They have only themselves to blame.

Anyone can do that.

Somebody should tell them.

Someone should say something.

Common Indefinite Pronouns

much little several one

each all many any

most more neither nobody

no one nothing something other

both some everybody none

anyone others either another

anything few anybody everything

somebody someone everybody

Relative Pronouns

A Relative Pronoun introduces a subordinate clause. It refers to a preceding noun, pronoun or clause and provides additional information or definition. The most common Relative Pronouns are:

who

which

that

whom

whose

He was the one who did it.

The clothes which are hanging on the line are nearly dry

The car that just passed was speeding.

She is the person to whom you must speak.

He was the one whose fingers slipped.

Interrogative Pronouns

Personal (for people) Impersonal (for things)

who which

whose what

Interrogative Pronouns are used in questions. They are usually singular but often take the plural of the verb to be if followed by a plural noun:

Who is coming today?

What did you say?

Whose coat is this?

Who can I ask?

Which one do you want?

Who are your friends?

What is the reason?

Prepositions

repositions such as from, in, about, with, et cetera, are "function words" and usually connect and relate verbs, nouns, adjectives and adjectives. They are usually followed by nouns or pronouns:

Preposition Example

about He will arrive at about six o'clock.

after He arrived after her.

against He was against the idea.

along She went along with the others.

apart from Apart from my clothes, I have no possessions.

around The bus is due to arrive around 3:00 p.m.

at I bought it at the bookstore.

before Did the chicken come before the egg?

between The girl walked between her parents.

by He traveled by train.

during It rained during our voyage.

for He asked for a glass of water.

from He came from London

in front of He sat in front of the television all day.

in I found it in the closet.

inside Her money is inside her purse.

into The river flows into the sea.

near He lives near the beach.

of He is a friend of mine.

on He came here on his bicycle.

opposite I live opposite the park.

out She went out the door.

out of He ran out of the house.

outside The best beach is outside of town.

past They went past here yesterday.

around (round) He just came around the corner.

through He ran through the water.

until (till) The party continued until (till) dawn.

to How do I get to the bus station?

toward It gets cold toward evening.

under The book is under the newspaper.

with She went with her father.

without She arrived without her ticket.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions link words, phrases and clauses:

1 Coordinating Conjunctions link two similar words or groups of words (e.g. nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, phrases or clauses). The main Coordinating Conjunctions are:

but

because

or

and

but

as well as

I like cheese but I don't like milk.

He came because I invited him.

Do you want to dance or go home?

You and I will finish the job.

He is smart but not brilliant.

The gift is for John as well as Mary.

2 Conjunctions Consisting of Two Parts

both (...) and (...)

not only (...) but also (...)

either (...) or (...)

neither (...) nor (...)

Both John and Mary will be there later.

He not only asked Robert but also Jane.

Either you do the job or I will.

Neither John nor Mary knew him very well.

3 Adverbs Acting as Conjunctions function as Coordinating Conjunctions. The most common are:

so

therefore

meanwhile

in any case

otherwise

therefore

despite that

I have to get up early so I must go now

The legislature passed the law, therefore we must obey it.

I read the paper, meanwhile Mary did the housework

In any case, we lost the game.

I won the bet, otherwise I would have had to wash the dishes.

He is 35 year old but, despite that, he behaves like a child

4 Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate clause to another clause. The main Subordinating Conjunctions are:

that

when

before

after

since

while

if, when(ever)

as if

so that

because

with the

as soon as

although

without

in order to

Please tell him that I would love to do it!

The car drove off the road when the driver failed to see the turn.

If only we had the time, we could do so much.

When(ever) I see her, she always looks so happy.

He was walking as if he were drunk.

Will you help me so that I can get to work on time?

He blew the car's horn in order to get her attention.

5 Omission

Sometimes a Subordinating Conjunction may be completely omitted.

Please tell him (that) I would love to do it!

If we (only) had the time, we could do so much

Will you help me so (that) I can get to work on time?

He blew the car's horn (in order) to get her attention.

6 Interrogatives

The interrogatives what, who, which and how function as Subordinating Conjunctions in indirect questions:

Then he asked me what time it was.

He wanted to know how much it cost.

John wanted to know which answer was correct.

Capitalization

In written English, the following are always capitalized (upper case):

The pronoun I (never written as i)

The first word of all sentences (Today it is raining.)

Formal names of people (John, Mary, James, Robert, et cetera)

Nationalities and some classifications of people (American, British, Arabic, Asian, et cetera)

Continents (Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia, et cetera)

Countries (United States, Great Britain, Russia, et cetera)

States and counties (California, New York, Denver, Kent, Minas Gerais, et cetera)

Regions, mountain ranges & deserts (Burgundy, Bavaria, Alps, Andes, Sahara, et cetera)

Oceans, lakes & rivers (Atlantic Ocean, Lake Michigan, Amazon River, et cetera)

Company names (Microsoft Corporation, Translation Experts Limited, et cetera)

Religions (Catholic, Protestant, Moslem, Evangelical, et cetera)

Seasons of the year (Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn -- also Fall in the U.S.)

Months of the year (January, February, March, et cetera)

Days of the week (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, et cetera)

Time & Numbers

The following examples provide a general guide of how time is used in English sentences. For example, "What time is it?" can also be expressed as "What is the time?" or "Do you have the time?" In English, it is usual to put a.m. or p.m. after all written expressions of time, although the 24-hour clock is being used more.

Time

Full Hours

"It is one o'clock" (add a.m. if morning; or p.m. if evening) can also be written as 1300 hours or abbreviated as 1300 hrs.

"It is twelve noon" can also be written as "noon" or "midday."

Half Hours

"It is half past three." (3:30 p.m.)

"It is 11:30" (add a.m. if morning; or p.m. if evening)

Quarter Hours

"It is quarter past eleven" or "It is 11:15" (add a.m. if morning; or p.m. if evening).

"It is quarter to (till) ten" or "It is 9:45" (add a.m. if morning; or p.m. if evening).

Minutes

"It is eight minutes past nine in the morning" or "It is 9.08 a.m."

"It is 18 minutes to six in the evening" or "It is 5.44 p.m."

Months, Days of the Week, Seasons & Date

Months of the Year

January Jan. or JAN

February Feb. or FEB

March Mar. or MAR

April Apr. or APR

May None

June Jun. or JUN

July Jul. or JUL

August Aug. or AUG

September Sept. Sep., SEPT or SEP

October Oct. or OCT

November Nov. or NOV

December Dec. or DEC

Months of the year are always capitalized.

Days of the Week

Monday Mon. or MON

Tuesday Tue. or TUE

Wednesday Wed. or WED

Thursday Thurs. or THUR

Friday Fri. or FRI

Saturday Sat. or SAT

Sunday Sun. or SUN

Days of the week are always capitalized.

Seasons of the Year

Spring

Summer

Autumn (also Fall in the U.S.)

Winter

Seasons of the year are always capitalized.

Dates

Most often, ordinal numbers are used to write the date.

British American

12 May 1995 May 12, 1995

31 August 1995 August 31, 1995

2 June 1994 June 2, 1994

12-05-95 05-12-95

Numbers

Cardinal Numbers

Ordinal Numbers

Measurements

U.S. & British Currency

Cardinal Numbers

In both the US and Great Britain, a comma (,) is used to separate thousands from hundreds and a period (.) to separate fractions.

0 zero (British nil or nought)

1 one

2 two

3 three

4 four

5 five

6 six

7 seven

8 eight

9 nine

10 ten

11 eleven

12 twelve

13 thirteen

14 fourteen

15 fifteen

16 sixteen

17 seventeen

18 eighteen

19 nineteen

20 twenty

21 twenty-one

22 twenty-two

23 twenty-three

30 thirty

31 thirty-one

40 forty

42 forty-two

50 fifty

53 fifty-three

60 sixty

64 sixty-four

70 seventy

75 seventy-five

80 eighty

86 eighty-six

90 ninety

97 ninety-seven

100 one hundred

108 one hundred eight

119 one hundred nineteen

200 two hundred

221 two hundred twenty-one

1,000 one thousand

1,234 one thousand two hundred thirty-four

2,000 two thousand

1,000,000 one million

1,000,000,000 one billion

Ordinal Numbers

first 1st

second 2nd

third 3rd

fourth 4th

fifth 5th

sixth 6th

seventh 7th

eighth 8th

ninth 9th

tenth 10th

eleventh 11th

twelfth 12th

thirteenth 13th

fourteenth 14th

fifteenth 15th

sixteenth 16th

seventeenth 17th

eighteenth 18th

nineteenth 19th

twentieth 20th

twenty-first 21st

twenty-second 22nd

thirty-third 33rd

forty-fourth 44th

hundredth 100th

one hundred first 101st

two hundred thirteenth 213th

three hundred twenty-fifth 325th

thousandth 1,000th

millionth 1, 000, 000th

Measurements

Distance

Great Britain uses the metric system (kilometers, meters, centimeters, millimeters, et cetera) and while some industries in the United States are increasingly using metric measurement, most measurement in the U.S. is expressed in miles, acres, yards, feet, inches, ounces, pounds, et cetera. Clothing and shoe sizes can also differ greatly in the US from sizes elsewhere. In addition, temperature in the US is measured in Fahrenheit not Celsius. To convert Fahrenheit degrees into Celsius, subtract 32, multiply by 5 and divide by 9.

Linear Measure

1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

1 foot = 0.3048 meter

1 meter = 39.37 inches1.0936 yards

1 yard = 0.9144 meter

1 kilometer = 0.621 mile

1 mile = 1.609 kilometers

12 inches = 1 foot

3 feet = 1 yard

5,280 feet = 1 mile

Square Measure

1 hectare = 2.47 acres

1 acre = 0.4047 hectare

640 acres = 1 square mile

Weights

1 gram = 0.03527 ounce

1 ounce = 28.35 grams

1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds

1 pound = 0.4536 kilogram

1 metric ton = 0.98421 English ton

1 English ton = 1.016 metric tons

Liquid Measure

In Great Britain, most liquid measure is now metric (with the exception of milk) though many people still use the Imperial measures. The US continues to use the US gallon, quarts and pints although alcohol and some other commodities have started to be measured in liters.

Liquid Measure

1 US gallon = 0.833 Imperial gallon

1 US gallon = 3.785 liters

1 Imperial gallon = 1.2001 US gallons

1 Imperial gallon = 4.546 liters

1 liter = 0.264 US gallon

2 pints = 1 quart

4 quarts = 1 US gallon

31 1/2 US gallons = 1 barrel

U.S. & British Currency

Both U.S. and British currency is based on the decimal system. British currency is based upon the Pound Sterling (comprised of 100 Pence) while US currency is based on the Dollar (composed of 100 Cents).

United States

100 cents (100˘) = 1 dollar = $1.00

$4.99 = four dollars and 99 cents

Great Britain

100 pence (100p) = 1 pound sterling = Ł1.00

Ł4.99 = four pounds and 99 pence

Canada

100 cents (100˘) = 1 Canadian dollar = $1.00

$4.99 = four dollars and 99 cents

(not the same value as a US dollar)

Australia

100 cents (100˘) = 1 Australian dollar = $1.00

$4.99 = four dollars and 99 cents

(not the same value as a US dollar)

Sentence Structure

Word Order

Negatives

Questions

Answers

Word Order

1 The word order of a simple English sentence is usually:

Subject + Verb (+ object(s)) (+ complement)

We are eating.

We are eating breakfast.

We are eating breakfast today on the patio.

2 If there is both a direct and an indirect object in the sentence, the order depends on whether they are nouns or pronouns:

He gave his mother the history book.

He gave the history book to his mother.

He gave her the history book.

He gave it to his mother.

He gave it to her.

3 Subordinate clauses are sometimes placed at the beginning of a sentence and separated from the main clause(s) by a comma:

After eating breakfast, he went to the office.

--means the same as:

He went to the office after eating breakfast.

Negatives

Main Negative Words

no

not

not a

nor

nobody (no one)

no one (nobody)

not only (...) but also (...)

no more

nothing

never

nowhere

neither ... nor

by no means

no how

nary (not anything/not anyone)

Not is probably the most useful English negative. It usually follows the auxiliary verb (am, is, are, were, has, have, had, did, does) used with a participle:

I am not going tonight.

He is not listening.

They are not here yet.

They were not supposed to be here.

That does not have all the parts.

It has not been more than an hour.

He did not arrive until 3:00 p.m.

She was not listening.

That is not what I ordered.

You did not listen to me.

The position of other English negatives can vary:

There was not a single piece of cake left.

I received no help from anyone.

Nobody came to help me.

There was no one there.

There was no mail today.

By no means was it certain it would happen.

It is not only wrong but also illegal.

I can stand this no more.

There was nothing more to say.

I will never see it again.

When I asked, nobody (no one) offered to help.

When I looked for it, it was nowhere to be found.

He wanted neither food nor drink.

He wanted nothing, neither help nor a kind word.

Questions

Direct Questions

There are four basic ways of forming a direct question in English:

1 Invert the normal word order of a statement:

You speak German. >>> Do you speak German?

She is sleeping >>> Is she sleeping?

You love me. >>> Do you love me?

2 Question word(s) + finite verb (+ subject) (+ complement):

Question words:

who? >>> Who is coming?

what? >>> What happened?

when? >>> When will it be ready?

why? >>> Why did you do that?

where? >>> Where did you go?

how? >>> How did you do that?

(to) who? >>> You sent it to who?

(to) whom? >>> To whom am I speaking?

whose? >>> Whose coat is that?

(with) whom? >>> With whom did you travel?

3 Subject + finite verb (+ complement):

Used when the question is in the form of a sarcastic interjection:

That's supposed to be cheap?!

So what's your point?!

4 Subject + finite verb (+ complement) + tag

Tags in English: isn't it (is not it), aren't you (are not you), doesn't he (does not he), can't she (cannot she), et cetera:

Isn't it a shame?

Aren't you sorry?

Doesn't he care any more?

Can't he swim yet?

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions follow a verb or a clause and are introduced by an interrogative word:

Explain why you're angry.

Tell me how you want it done.

Show me what to do.

Draw me a picture of it.

Demonstrate it for me.

Answers

Question Answer

Are you going already? Yes, I have to go now.No, I still have some time.

Was it interesting? No, it was boring.Yes, it was very interesting.

Didn't you like it? No, it wasn't very good.Yes, I liked it very much.

Do you like it? Yes, I like it.No, I don't like it.

Will you finish today? Yes, I will.No, I won't be able to finish today.

Contractions

English uses numerous contractions. Contractions are most often a combination of a pronoun and a verb form. In written form, an apostrophe ( ' ) takes the place of the "missing" or omitted letter or letters in the contraction. For example, we have (xxx) becomes we've (we have - ha + (apostrophe) = we've). In spoken English, the pronoun is usually pronounced normally and the contraction added at the end. Some of the most commonly used English contractions are:

Pronoun & Verb Contraction

I am = I'm

he is = he's

she is = she's

you are = you're (pronounced the same as your but not possessive)

we are = we're

they are = they're (pronounced the same as their but not possessive)

it is = it's (pronounced the same as its but not possessive)

I will = I'll

he will = he'll

she will = she'll

you will = you'll

we will = we'll

they will = they'll

it will = it'll

there is = there's

here is = here's

where is = where's

is not = isn't

were not = weren't

will not = won't (irregular)

cannot (can not) = can't

are not = aren't (ain't = US slang)

could not = couldn't

would not = wouldn't

should not = shouldn't

did not = didn't

would have = would've

should have = should've

could have = could've

I have = I've

you have = you've

they have = they've

we have = we've

you all = ya'll (US slang)

Similar Sounding Words with Different Meanings

accent

ascent

assent

accept

except

advise

advice

affect

effect

all ready

already

all together

all together

allusive

elusive

illusive

bath

bathe

berth

birth

born

borne

capital

capitol

choose

chose

cite

sight

site

council

counsel

consul

decent

descent

dissent

device

devise

dual

duel

dyeing

dying

formally

formerly

forth

fourth

hear

here

holy

wholly

instance

instants

irrelevant

irreverent

its

it's

know

no

later

latter

lessen

lesson

lead

lead

led

lose

loose

moral

morale

of

off

passed

past

peace

piece

person

personal

personnel

precede

proceed

presence

presents

principal

principle

quiet

quite

quit

respectfully

respectively

right

wright

write

sense

cents

scents

shone

shown

stationary

stationery

than

then

there

their

they're

to

too

two

weak

week

weather

whether

whose

who's

your

you're

+s, 9

0.03527 ounce, 48

0.264 US gallon, 48

0.3048 meter, 47

0.3937 inch, 47

0.4047 hectare, 47

0.4536 kilogram, 48

0.621 mile, 47

0.833 Imperial gallon, 48

0.9144 meter, 47

0.98421 English ton, 48

05-12-95, 45

1 barrel, 48

1 Coordinating Conjunctions link two similar words or groups of words (e.g. nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, phrases or clauses). The main Coordinating Conjunctions are:, 40

1 foot, 47

1 If the infinitive ends in e preceded by a consonant, then, the e is omitted and ing is added to the stem, for example, (to) choose - e + ing = choosing or (to) become - e + ing = becoming., 25

1 Invert the normal word order of a statement:, 52

1 mile, 47

1 Most singular nouns are made plural by adding s to the end:, 27

1 quart, 48

1 Simple Adjectives using base words such as happy, sad, good, bad, fast, slow, yellow, red, et cetera, new, old, pretty, ugly, et cetera., 31

1 square mile, 47

1 The word order of a simple English sentence is usually:, 49

1 To express a present state or action:, 16

1 US gallon, 48

1 yard, 47

1, 000, 000th, 47

1,000th, 47

1. Background, 1, 5

1. Background 4, 1, 5

1. Types of Verbs, 1, 9

1. Types of Verbs 8, 1, 9

1.016 metric tons, 48

1.2001 US gallons, 48

1.609 kilometers, 47

100 cents (100˘) = 1 Australian dollar = $1.00, 49

100 cents (100˘) = 1 Canadian dollar = $1.00, 49

100 cents (100˘) = 1 dollar = $1.00, 48

100 pence (100p) = 1 pound sterling = Ł1.00, 49

100th, 47

101st, 47

10th, 5, 46

11th, 46

12th, 46

13th, 46

14th, 46

15th, 46

16th, 46

17th, 47

18th, 47

19th, 47

1st, 34, 46

2 Conjunctions Consisting of Two Parts, 40

2 Derived Adjectives formed by adding a suffix to a base noun or verb, for example:, 32

2 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by another consonant or a, 25

2 If there is both a direct and an indirect object in the sentence, the order depends on whether they are nouns or pronouns:, 49

2 Many (but not all) nouns ending in a double letter (usually ss) are made plural by adding es to the end:, 27

2 Question word(s) + finite verb (+ subject) (+ complement):, 52

2 To express general or universal truths:, 16

2. Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have) (are used with participles to form different tenses of verbs), 1, 13

2. Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have) (are used with participles to form different tenses of verbs) 12, 1, 13

2. Parts of Speech, 1, 6

2. Parts of Speech 5, 1, 6

2.2046 pounds, 48

2.47 acres, 47

2.54 centimeters, 47

20th, 47

213th, 47

21st, 47

22nd, 47

28.35 grams, 48

2nd, 34, 46

3 Adverbs Acting as Conjunctions function as Coordinating Conjunctions. The most common are:, 40

3 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by two vowels, then, ing is added to the infinitive. For example, (to) creep + ing = creeping, (to) shoot + ing = shooting or (to) speak + ing = speaking., 25

3 Some nouns of foreign origin ending in eau use an x for form the plural:, 27

3 Subject + finite verb (+ complement):, 52

3 Subordinate clauses are sometimes placed at the beginning of a sentence and separated from the main clause(s) by a comma:, 50

3 To express a firm intention, a refusal and for orders as an alternative to the imperative tense:, 17

3. American (US) & British English, 1, 6

3. American (US) & British English 6, 1, 6

3.785 liters, 48

325th, 47

33rd, 47

39.37 inches1.0936 yards, 47

3rd, 34, 46

4 Exceptions:, 27

4 If the infinitive ends in a consonant which is preceded by a, 25

4 Subject + finite verb (+ complement) + tag, 52

4 Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate clause to another clause. The main Subordinating Conjunctions are:, 41

4.546 liters, 48

44th, 47

4th, 46, 57

5 If the infinitive ends in a double vowel, then, ing is added to the infinitive. For example, (to) see + ing = seeing., 25

5 Omission, 42

5th, 46, 47

6 Interrogatives, 42

6th, 46

7th, 46

8th, 46

9th, 46

a book, 29

a car, 29

a door, 30

a house, 30

a library, 30

a man, 29

A new world record was set today., 32

A Pronoun is a word that can substitute or be used in place noun or a group of words that function as a noun. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Reflexive, Indefinite, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns., 34

A Relative Pronoun introduces a subordinate clause. It refers to a preceding noun, pronoun or clause and provides additional information or definition. The most common Relative Pronouns are:, 37

a street, 30

a table, 30

A verb is a word that expresses an action, an occurrence or a state of being. All English verbs can be classified as either:, 9

a woman, 29

accent, 56

accept, 56

adjectives, 6

Adjectives, 3, 31

adverb, 26, 33

adverbs, 6

Adverbs, 3, 32, 33

Adverbs are often used to quantify a verb but, as an adverb intensifier, they can also quantify adjectives and other adverbs:, 33

Adverbs are used to qualify verbs and often follow the verb in the sentence:, 33

Adverbs can also be used to qualify an adjective. In such a case, the Adverb usually precedes the adjective it is qualifying:, 33

Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifiers and help to qualify, limit or make other words in a sentence clearer or more specific., 32

advice, 56

advise, 56

affect, 56

affordably, 33

after, 38, 41, 43

After eating breakfast, he went to the office., 50

all, 5, 26, 30, 37, 39, 43, 56

all men, 30

All Personal Pronouns can used as the subject of a sentence:, 35

all ready, 56

all together, 56

allusive, 56

almost, 5, 33

already, 56

although, 41, 43, 48

alumni, 28

American, 7, 8, 26, 44, 45

American (US) & British English, 5

American English, 7, 8

Americans, 5, 6, 7, 8, 27, 44

An Adjective is a descriptive word which helps qualify or modify a noun. There are two forms of English adjectives:, 31

An Adverb may be used to qualify another Adverb. In such cases, it precedes the Adverb which it qualifies:, 33

an apple, 30

an application, 30

an article, 30

an eagle, 30

an edge, 30

an egg, 30

an historic (exception), 30

an idea, 30

an index, 30

an indication, 30

an opal, 30

an opinion, 30

an option, 30

an umbrella, 30

an ungrateful son, 30

and, 5, 6, 7, 26, 28, 29, 40, 47, 48, 49, 54

Answer, 52, 53

Answers, 49, 53

Anyone can do that., 36

Apart from my clothes, I have no possessions., 38

apartment, 8

apologize, 7

Apr. or APR, 44

aren't (ain't = US slang), 55

Aren't you sorry?, 53

arose, 10

arrive + d = arrived, 1, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

Articles, 2, 3, 28

Articles 19, 2, 3, 28

as if, 41

as soon as, 41

as well as, 40

ascent, 56

assent, 56

ate, 11

attract + ive = attractive, 32

Aug. or AUG, 44, 45

August 31, 1995, 45

Australia, 5, 49

authorize, 7

Autumn (also Fall in the U.S.), 44

Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have), 9

Auxiliary Verbs (to be, to have) (are used with participles to form different tenses of verbs), 9

awoke/awaked, 10

Background, 4

baseboard, 8

bath, 57

bathe, 57

be, 6, 7, 10, 14, 26, 29, 43, 48, 52, 54

beandeaux, 27

beat, 10

became, 5, 10

because, 40, 41

Because many single English words can work in different ways, you should always first determine how the word functions within a sentence before labeling it as a specific part of speech., 6

befell, 10

before, 38, 41

began, 10

beheld, 10

bent, 10

berth, 57

beset, 10

bet/betted, 10

bid, 10

birth, 57

bit, 10

bled, 10

blew, 10

books, 27, 39

bore, 10

born, 10, 57

borne, 10, 57

both (...) and (...), 40

Both John and Mary will be there later., 40

Both regular and irregular verbs follow the same rules of tense:, 15

Both U.S. and British currency is based on the decimal system. British currency is based upon the Pound Sterling (comprised of 100 Pence) while US currency is based on the Dollar (composed of 100 Cents)., 48

bought, 10

bound, 10

boys, 26, 28

bred, 10

broke, 10

brought, 10

built, 10

burned/burnt, 10

burst, 10

bushes, 27

but, 7, 40, 54, 55

But the same English word help is a verb (an action) when used in a different way in a different sentence:, 6

butts, 27

by no means, 50

By no means was it certain it would happen., 51

cakes, 27

California, 27

came, 10, 38

Canada, 5, 49

canceled, 7

can't, 55

capital, 57

Capitalization, 3, 42

capitol, 57

caps, 26, 27

Cardinal Numbers, 2, 45

Cardinal Numbers 31, 2, 45

cars, 8, 27

cases, 27

cats, 27

caught, 10

center, 7

cents, 48, 49, 58

check, 7

children, 28

choose, 10, 57

chose, 10, 57

cite, 57

classroom, 26

clearly, 33

closely, 33

clung, 10

color, 7

comedy - y + i + es =, 28

Common Indefinite Pronouns, 2, 37

Common Indefinite Pronouns 25, 2, 37

Company names (Microsoft Corporation, Translation Experts Limited, et cetera), 43

compasses, 27

conjunctions, 6

Conjunctions, 3, 39

Conjunctions link words, phrases and clauses:, 39

consul, 57

Continents (Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia, et cetera), 42

Contraction, 54

Contractions, 3, 54

Contractions 38, 3, 54

cost, 10, 33

costly, 33

cosy, 7

couldn't, 55

could've, 55

council, 57

counsel, 57

Countries (United States, Great Britain, Russia, et cetera), 42

crept, 10

cups, 27

cut, 11

Danube River, 26, 27

Dates, 44

Days of the Week, 44

Days of the week (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, et cetera), 43

Days of the week are always capitalized., 44

dealt, 11

dearly, 33

Dec. or DEC, 44

decent, 57

defense, 7

Definite Article, 2, 28, 29

Definite Article 19, 2, 28, 29

Demonstrate it for me., 53

Demonstratives, 2, 29, 30

Demonstratives 20, 2, 29, 30

descent, 57

despite that, 40

device, 57

devise, 57

diaper, 8

did, 11, 39

Did the chicken come before the egg?, 38, 41

didn't, 55

Direct Questions, 51

dissent, 57

Distance, 3, 47

Distance 33, 3, 47

dived/dove, 11

Do you want to dance or go home?, 40

drank, 11

Draw me a picture of it., 53

dreamed/dreamt, 11

drew, 11

drops, 9

drove, 11

druggist, 8

dual, 57

duel, 57

dug, 11

dyeing, 57

dying, 57

each, 30, 37

each person, 30

effect, 56

eight, 1, 45, 48

eighteen, 44, 45

eighty, 46

eighty-six, 46

either (...) or (...), 40

Either you do the job or I will., 40

elevator, 8

eleven, 43, 45

Elm Street, 26, 27

elusive, 57

England is in Europe., 16

English irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle in a number of different ways. The following list includes the most common irregular English verbs., 10

eraser, 8

every, 30

every article, 30

Example, 38

except, 56

experimentally, 33

Explain why you're angry., 53

fashion + able = fashionable, 32

Feb. or FEB, 44

fed, 11

feet, 28, 47

fell, 11

felt, 11

few, 37

fifteen, 2, 43, 45

fifty, 46

fifty-three, 46

first-person plural, 34

fitted/fit (A), 11

five, 1, 25, 42, 44, 45, 47

flavor, 7

fled, 11

flew, 11

flowers, 27

flung, 11

fool + ish = foolish, 32

For Irregular Verbs, the participles are unique and must be learned individually with the verb tenses., 26

forbid/forbade (B), 11

forecast, 11

forgave, 11

forget + ful = forgetful, 32

forgot, 11, 32

Formal names of people (John, Mary, James, Robert, et cetera), 42

formally, 57

formerly, 57

Forming Adverbs, 32

forsook, 11

forth, 57

forty, 46

forty-two, 46

fought, 11

found, 11

four, 1, 25, 27, 41, 45, 48, 49, 52

fourteen, 1, 2, 45

fourth, 46, 57

freeway, 8

french fries, 8

Fri. or FRI, 44

froze, 11

Full Hours, 43

Future Perfect Tense, 2, 15, 22

Future Perfect Tense 15, 2, 15, 22

Future Tense, 2, 15, 20

Future Tense 15, 2, 15, 20

gas/gasoline, 8

gave, 11

geese, 28

girls, 27, 39

glasses, 27, 39

gone, 11, 53

got, 11, 39

gray, 8

Great Britain, 47, 48, 49

grew, 11

ground, 11

had, 11, 14, 15, 22, 23, 24, 48, 53, 54

had to, 12

Half Hours, 43

have, 11, 14, 15, 22, 23, 24, 48, 53, 54

He arrived after her., 38, 41, 43

He asked for a glass of water., 28, 37, 39

He blew the car's horn (in order) to get her attention., 42

He blew the car's horn in order to get her attention., 42

He bought himself a new car., 36

He came because I invited him., 40

He came from London, 5, 38, 39, 47

He came here on his bicycle., 7, 39, 55

He did not arrive until 3

00 p.m., 51

he English language is made up of eight basic types of words or parts of speech:, 6

He gave her the history book., 50

He gave his mother the history book., 50

He gave it to her., 50

He gave it to his mother., 50

He gave the history book to his mother., 50

he had, 14

He has two new cars., 32

He himself is responsible., 36

He is 35 year old but, despite that, he behaves like a child, 41

He is a friend of mine., 5, 6, 7, 26, 28, 39, 43, 48, 54, 58

he is listening, 17

He is not listening., 50

He is sleeping., 18

He is smart but not brilliant., 40

He just came around the corner., 39

He listened carefully., 19

he listens, 16

He listens carefully, doesn't he?, 16

He lives near the beach., 33, 39

He not only asked Robert but also Jane., 40

He ran out of the house., 39

He ran through the water., 39

He sat in front of the television all day., 39

He shall/will have arrived by the time the taxi gets here., 24

He took the wrong road., 35

He traveled by train., 7, 26, 28, 29, 39, 47, 50

He wanted neither food nor drink., 51

He wanted nothing, neither help nor a kind word., 51

He wanted to know how much it cost., 42

he was, 14, 17, 18, 54

He was against the idea., 38

He was listening to the radio when his mother entered the room., 20

He was the one who did it., 37

He was the one whose fingers slipped., 37

He was walking as if he were drunk., 41

He went to the office after eating breakfast., 50

He will arrive at about six o'clock., 5, 34, 38

He will/shall answer the letter in the morning., 22

health + y = healthy, 32

hear, 11, 57

heard, 11, 57

held, 11

he'll, 55

her, 14, 16, 18, 20, 31, 34, 35, 38, 39, 54, 55

Her hair is amazingly silky., 34

Her money is inside her purse., 39

Her new dress is green., 32

Her purse was stolen., 35

here, 33, 39, 55, 57

here's, 55

hero + ic = heroic, 32

hers, 34

herself, 14, 16, 18, 20, 31, 34, 35, 54, 55

he's, 54

hesitantly, 33

hid, 11

himself, 5, 6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 31, 34, 35, 39, 43, 53, 54, 55

his, 5, 6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 31, 34, 35, 39, 43, 53, 54, 55

His car is green., 35

His new car is red and fast., 32

His two cars are new and fashionable., 32

hit, 11

holy, 57

hood (car), 8

How do I get to the bus station?, 5, 7, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 34, 38, 39, 43, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 58

how? >>> How did you do that?, 52

humor, 7

humor + ous = humorous, 32

hung, 11

hurt, 11

I am going shopping., 35

I am listening, 17

I am not going tonight., 50

I am not going., 17

I am reading., 18

I bought it at the bookstore., 5, 7, 38, 54

I bought two new books., 32

I can stand this no more., 51

I cut myself yesterday., 36

I feel ill., 16

I found it in the closet., 5, 6, 7, 26, 27, 28, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 47, 48, 54

I had, 14, 38, 41, 53, 56

I have to get up early so I must go now, 41

I like cheese but I don't like milk., 40

I listen, 16

I listened to the radio., 19

I live opposite the park., 39

I myself don't like it., 36

I read the paper, meanwhile Mary did the housework, 41

I received no help from anyone., 51

I was, 14, 17, 18, 35, 50, 54

I was arriving home when I met George., 20

I will do it., 17

I will never see it again., 51

I will/shall arrive in London tomorrow., 22

I will/shall have finished reading the book by Sunday., 24

I will/shall have listened to ten lectures by next week., 24

I won the bet, otherwise I would have had to wash the dishes., 41

I. The English Language, 1, 4

I. The English Language 4, 1, 4

If only we had the time, we could do so much., 41

If the noun ends in y and is preceded by a vowel, the y is retained and only an s is added:, 28

If we (only) had the time, we could do so much, 42

if, when(ever), 41

II. Verbs, 1, 8

II. Verbs 7, 1, 8

I'll, 55

illusive, 57

I'm, 54

Imperfect, 1, 2, 10, 14, 15, 17, 18, 25

Impersonal (for things), 37

in any case, 40

In any case, we lost the game., 41

In both the US and Great Britain, a comma (,) is used to separate thousands from hundreds and a period (.) to separate fractions., 45

In English, the Adjective usually precedes the noun to which it refers:, 32

In English, the Demonstrative Articles (also called Demonstrative Pronouns) are:, 30

in order to, 41

In written English, the following are always capitalized (upper case):, 42

Indefinite Article, 2, 28, 29

Indefinite Article 20, 2, 28, 29

Indefinite Pronouns, 2, 34, 36

Indefinite Pronouns 25, 2, 34, 36

Indefinite Pronouns can be substituted for a noun but do not define precisely what or who they refer to:, 36

Indirect Questions, 3, 53

Indirect Questions 37, 3, 53

Indirect questions follow a verb or a clause and are introduced by an interrogative word:, 53

instance, 57

instants, 57

interjections, 6

Interrogative Pronouns, 2, 34, 37, 38

Interrogative Pronouns 26, 2, 34, 37, 38

Interrogative Pronouns are used in questions. They are usually singular but often take the plural of the verb to be if followed by a plural noun:, 38

Irregular Verbs, 1, 9, 10

Irregular Verbs (follow no standard set pattern and require separate attention), 1, 9, 10

Irregular Verbs (follow no standard set pattern and require separate attention) 8, 1, 9, 10

irrelevant, 57

irreverent, 57

is then added. For example, (to) cut + t + ing = cutting or (to) dig + g +ing = digging or (to) shed + d + ing = shedding., 25

isn't, 55

it, 5, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57

It gets cold toward evening., 39

It has not been more than an hour., 51

It is a black cat., 35

It is not only wrong but also illegal., 51

It is raining., 18

It rained during our voyage., 39

It was a boring trip., 32

It was unbelievably cold., 33

it'll, 55

its, 5, 6, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57

it's (pronounced the same as its but not possessive), 55

Its outcome is certain., 31

Its paw is sore., 35

itself, 5, 31, 35, 36, 38, 39, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57

I've, 56

Jack likes music., 16

Jan. or JAN, 44

jewelry, 7

John wanted to know which answer was correct., 42

Jul. or JUL, 44

Jun. or JUN, 44, 45

June 2, 1994, 45

kept, 11

kerosene, 8

kilogramme, 7, 48

kilometer, 7

kisses, 27

kneeled/knelt (B), 11

knew, 11, 57

knife - fe + ve + s =, 28

know, 11, 57

labor, 7

laid, 11

lake, 6, 7, 8, 26, 44, 45

Lake Erie, 26

later, 57

latter, 57

lay, 11

lead, 11, 57

leaned/leant (B), 11

leapt/leaped, 11

learned/learnt (B), 11

leaves, 28

led, 11, 57

left, 11

lent, 11

lessen, 57

lesson, 57

let, 8, 11

license, 7

Linear Measure, 47

Liquid Measure, 48

lit/lighted, 11

little, 37, 53

London, 8, 27

loose, 58

lose, 11, 57

lost, 11, 57

Ł4.99 = four pounds and 99 pence, 49

made, 12

mail, 8

Main Negative Words, 50

many, 5, 6, 30, 37, 48

Many English Adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective. Sometimes, if the adjective ends in e, the e is omitted before -ly is added:, 32

many people, 30, 48

maps, 27

Mar. or MAR, 44

Mary, 26, 28

masses, 5, 26, 27

matches, 27

May 12, 1995, 45

--means the same as:, 50

meant, 12

meanwhile, 40

Measurements, 3, 45, 47

Measurements 33, 3, 45, 47

men, 28

met, 12

meter, 7

mice, 28

milligramme, 7

millimeter, 7

mine, 1, 4, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56

Minutes, 43

mistook, 12

Mon. or MON, 44

Months of the Year, 44

Months of the year (January, February, March, et cetera), 43

Months of the year are always capitalized., 44

Months, Days of the Week, Seasons & Date, 44

moral, 58

morale, 58

more, 5, 7, 37, 47, 48, 54

Most often, ordinal numbers are used to write the date., 44

mountains, 27

mowed, 12

My car is old., 32

myself, 1, 4, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56

nary (not anything/not anyone), 50

Nationalities and some classifications of people (American, British, Arabic, Asian, et cetera), 42

nearly, 33

Negatives, 3, 49, 50

Negatives 35, 3, 49, 50

Negroes, 28

neighbor, 7

neither (...) nor (...), 40

neither ... nor, 50

Neither John nor Mary knew him very well., 40

never, 50

New York, 26

newly, 33

nine, 43, 44, 45, 47

nineteen, 2, 45

ninety, 46

ninety-seven, 46

no, 37, 38, 50, 57

no how, 50

no more, 50

no one (nobody), 50

No, it was boring.Yes, it was very interesting., 53

nobody (no one), 50

Nobody came to help me., 51

None, 44, 45

nor, 50

not, 26, 40, 47, 49, 50, 54, 55

not a, 26, 50

Not is probably the most useful English negative. It usually follows the auxiliary verb (am, is, are, were, has, have, had, did, does) used with a participle:, 50

not only (...) but also (...), 40, 50

nothing, 37, 50

nouns, 6, 26, 28

Nouns, 2, 3, 26

Nouns 17, 2, 3, 26

Nov. or NOV, 44

nowhere, 50

Numbers, 2, 45

Numbers 31, 2, 45

oceans, 26, 27

Oceans, lakes & rivers (Atlantic Ocean, Lake Michigan, Amazon River, et cetera), 43

Oct. or OCT, 44

of, 5, 6, 7, 26, 28, 39, 43, 48, 54, 58

off, 58

offense, 7

Often, the Adjective(s) describing the noun can follow the verb:, 32

one, 1, 5, 9, 16, 25, 27, 31, 40, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52

one billion, 46

one hundred, 5, 46, 48, 49

one hundred eight, 46

one hundred nineteen, 46

one million, 46

One should always be careful with fire., 36

one thousand, 46, 47

one thousand two hundred thirty-four, 46

or, 6, 9, 26, 29, 34, 40, 43, 44, 45, 54

Ordinal Numbers, 2, 45, 46

Ordinal Numbers 32, 2, 45, 46

others, 37

otherwise, 40

our, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 34, 36, 38, 54, 55, 56

Our bus is late., 35

Our house is painted green., 31

Our trip was boring., 32

ours, 31, 34, 39

ourselves, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 34, 36, 54, 55, 56

overpass, 8

oxen, 28

paid, 12

parking lot, 8

parlor, 7

Participles, 2, 9, 25

Participles 16, 2, 9, 25

Parts of Speech, 5

passed, 58

past, 39, 43, 44, 58

Past Continous Tense, 2, 15, 19

Past Continous Tense 14, 2, 15, 19

Past Participle, 2, 10, 26

Past Participle 17, 2, 10, 26

Past Tense, 1, 10, 15, 18

Past Tense 14, 1, 10, 15, 18

peace, 58

person, 34, 58

personal, 58

Personal Pronouns, 2, 34

Personal Pronouns 24, 2, 34

Personal Pronouns refer to specific people and are categorized in three ways:, 34

personnel, 58

piece, 58

Place, 26

plates, 27

plays, 9

pleasantly, 33

Please tell him (that) I would love to do it!, 42

Please tell him that I would love to do it!, 41

Plural, 27, 28

Possesives, 29, 31

Possessive, 19, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35, 54

Possessive Articles (also known as Possessive Pronouns) and are formed from the normal pronoun:, 31

potato chips, 8

potatoes, 8, 28

precede, 58

prepositions, 6

Prepositions, 2, 3, 38

Prepositions 26, 2, 3, 38

presence, 58

Present Continuous, 1, 10, 15, 18

Present Continuous Tense, 1, 15, 17

Present Continuous Tense 13, 1, 15, 17

Present Participle, 2, 25

Present Participle 16, 2, 25

Present Tense, 1, 10, 15, 18

Present Tense 12, 1, 10, 15, 18

presents, 58

PresentTense, 9

principal, 58

principle, 58

proceed, 58

programme, 7

pronouns, 6

Pronouns, 2, 3, 34

Pronouns 23, 2, 3, 34

Pronunciation, 7

Proper, 2, 26, 37

put, 12, 43

Quarter Hours, 43

Question words:, 52

Questions, 3, 49, 51

Questions 36, 3, 49, 51

quiet, 58

quit, 12, 58

quite, 58

radii, 28

raisin, 8

rang/rung, 12

read, 12

refer to the person spoken to, 34

refer to the person, place or thing spoken about, 34

refer to the speaker, 34

Reflexive Pronoun, 2, 34, 35

Reflexive Pronouns, 2, 34, 35

Reflexive Pronouns 24, 2, 34, 35

Reflexive Pronouns are used when the action of the verb applies to the subject of the sentence., 35

Regions, mountain ranges & deserts (Burgundy, Bavaria, Alps, Andes, Sahara, et cetera), 43

Regular Verbs, 1, 9

Regular Verbs (follow a standard set pattern to form the various tenses), 1, 9

Regular Verbs (follow a standard set pattern to form the various tenses) 8, 1, 9

Relative Pronouns, 2, 34, 37

Relative Pronouns 25, 2, 34, 37

Religions (Catholic, Protestant, Moslem, Evangelical, et cetera), 43

rent/lease, 8, 11

repeats, 9

repositions such as from, in, about, with, et cetera, are, 38

respectfully, 58

respectively, 58

rid/ridded, 12

right, 58

rivers, 27, 39

rode, 12

rose, 12

said, 12

sang/sung (A), 12

sank/sunk (A), 12

sat, 12

Sat. or SAT, 44

saw, 12

sawed, 12

scenes, 27

scents, 58

Seasons of the Year, 44

Seasons of the year (Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn -- also Fall in the U.S.), 43

Seasons of the year are always capitalized., 44

send, 12

sense, 58

Sentence Structure, 3, 49

Sentence Structure 34, 3, 49

Sept. Sep., SEPT or SEP, 44

set, 12

seven, 1, 45

seventeen, 2, 45

seventy, 46

seventy-five, 46

shall + arrive = shall arrive, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

shall have + arrived = shall have arrived, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

shall have + listened = shall have listened, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

She arrived on Sunday., 19

She arrived without her ticket., 39, 41

She arrives Sunday., 16

She bought a fashionable dress., 32

She cooked herself a wonderful meal., 36

she had, 14

She is an attractive woman., 32

She is going., 18

She is sleeping >>> Is she sleeping?, 52

She is the person to whom you must speak., 37

She is very pretty., 16

She is working hard., 35

she listens, 16

she was, 14, 54

She was not listening., 51

She went along with the others., 38

She went out the door., 39

She went with her father., 5, 29, 38, 39, 41, 48, 52

sheared, 12

sheaves, 28

shed, 12

sheep, 28

she'll, 55

she's, 54

shone, 12, 58

shook, 12

shot, 12

should, 12, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 24

shouldn't, 55

should've, 55

Show me what to do., 53

showed, 12

shown, 12, 58

shrank, 12

shut, 12

sidewalk, 8

sight, 57

Similar Sounding Words with Different Meanings, 3, 56

Similar Sounding Words with Different Meanings 39, 3, 56

since, 41

Singular, 27, 28

site, 57

six, 1, 42, 45

sixteen, 2, 45

sixty, 46

sixty-four, 46

sky - y + i + es =, 28

slept, 12

slew, 12

slid, 12

slit, 12

slung, 12

smelled/smelt (B), 12

so, 40, 41

so that, 41

So what's your point?!, 52

sold, 12

some, 7, 30, 37, 40, 47, 48, 53

some folk, 30

Some people just never understand., 36

Some words are exclusively Adverbs:, 33

Somebody should tell them., 36

someone, 37

Someone should say something., 36

Sometimes a Subordinating Conjunction may be completely omitted., 42

sought, 12

sowed, 12

spat, 12

sped/speeded, 12

spelled, 12

Spelling, 7

spent, 12

spilled/spilt, 12

split, 12

spoiled, 12

spoke, 5, 12

sprang, 13

spread, 12

Spring, 44

spun, 12

Square Measure, 47

stank, 13

States and counties (California, New York, Denver, Kent, Minas Gerais, et cetera), 42

stationary, 58

stationery, 58

stole, 13

stood, 13

street, 26

streets, 26, 27

strode, 13

strove, 13

struck, 13

stuck, 13

stung, 13

Subject + Verb (+ object(s)) (+ complement), 49

subway, 8

such, 30

such details, 30

Summer, 44

Sun. or SUN, 44

suspenders, 8

swam/swum (A), 13, 53

swelled, 13

swore, 13

swung, 13

Tags in English

isn't it (is not it), aren't you (are not you), doesn't he (does not he), can't she (cannot she), et cetera:, 53

talks, 9

taught, 13

Tell me how you want it done., 53

ten, 45

than, 5, 6, 58

that, 7, 26, 30, 37, 41

that book, 30

That book was terrible., 32

That coat is mine., 31

That does not have all the parts., 51

That is a very boring book., 33

That is his bicycle., 31

That is not what I ordered., 51

That was a humorous story., 32

That was a terrible book., 32

that woman, 30

The auxiliary verbs be and have are both used with participles to form different verb tenses. Shall is used more in British English and will is used more in American English., 13

The best beach is outside of town., 39

the book, 29, 38

The book is under the newspaper., 39

the boy, 29

The bus arrived promptly at 3

00 o'clock., 33

The bus is due to arrive around 3

00 p.m., 38, 39

The cake is almost gone., 33

the car, 29

The car drove off the road when the driver failed to see the turn., 41

The car that just passed was speeding., 37

the cat, 29

The clothes which are hanging on the line are nearly dry, 37

the country, 29

the cup, 29

The Demonstrative Articles precede the noun to which they refer:, 30

the dog, 29

The English Definite Article has only one form -- the., 29

The English Language, 3

The first word of all sentences (Today it is raining.), 42

The Future Perfect Tense is formed by adding shall have or will have before the Past Participle of the verb:, 22

The Future Perfect Tense is used to describe an event or action that will be completed at some time in the future:, 24

The Future Tense is formed by adding will or shall before the infinitive of the verb:, 20

The Future Tense is used to describe an event which will be completed some time in the future:, 22

The gift is for John as well as Mary., 40

the girl, 29

The girl walked between her parents., 7, 39

the glass, 29

the house, 29, 39

the idea, 29, 38

The interrogatives what, who, which and how function as Subordinating Conjunctions in indirect questions:, 42

the law, 29

The legislature passed the law, therefore we must obey it., 41

the lion, 29

the lioness, 29

The majority of English verbs are regular and change their form by adding -s, -ing, -ed or -d the infinitive or basic verb. Regular English Verbs all have four forms., 9

the man, 29

the meal, 29

the newspaper, 29, 39

The party continued until (till) dawn., 39

The Past Continuous Tense is formed by using the Past Tense of the verb be = was/were followed by the Present Participle:, 19

The Past Continuous Tense is often used to describe actions which took place in the past and happened in conjunction with another occurrence:, 20

The Past Tense is used to express actions or events that took place in the past and are now finished or completed:, 19

The Past Tense of all Regular Verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive of verbs ending in a consonant and d to the infinitive of verbs ending in a vowel (usually e):, 18

The position of other English negatives can vary:, 51

The Present Continuous Tense is formed by using the Present Tense of the verb to be followed by the Present Participle., 17

The Present Continuous Tense is used instead of the Present Tense when the action is continuous, for example:, 18

The Present Participle of English verbs is formed by adding -ing to the stem of the infinitive and is subject to certain rules:, 25

The Present Tense is used:, 16

The pronoun I (never written as i), 42

The river flows into the sea., 5, 39, 47

The river flows smoothly., 33

the room, 29

the state, 29

the street, 29

the table, 29

The time went quickly., 33

the train, 29

the woman, 29

theater, 7

their, 7, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 35, 36, 55, 56, 58

Their trip was postponed., 35

theirs, 35

them, 35

themselves, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 35, 36, 55, 56, 58

then, 58

Then he asked me what time it was., 42

there, 5, 6, 33, 55, 58

There are a few major areas of difference between British and American spelling, for example:, 7

There are also word and phrase differences between British and American English, for example:, 8

There are four basic ways of forming a direct question in English:, 51

There was no mail today., 51

There was no one there., 51

There was not a single piece of cake left., 51

There was nothing more to say., 51

There were only three of them, you see., 36

therefore, 40

there's, 55

they, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 35, 36, 55, 56, 58

They (will/shall) arrive on Wednesday., 16

They are departing., 18

they are listening, 18

They are not here yet., 50

They arrived Sunday., 19

They followed us., 19

they had, 14, 15, 56

They have only themselves to blame., 36

They help every week by cleaning the classroom., 6

they listen, 16

They put their coats on before going outside., 31

They washed themselves in the river., 36

They went past here yesterday., 39, 43, 44, 58

they were, 14, 18, 55

They were here last Tuesday., 35

They were listening carefully but then he stopped talking., 20

They were not supposed to be here., 50

They will be here tonight., 17

They will wash the car Tuesday., 22

They will/shall have completed the project by tomorrow., 24

they'll, 55

they're (pronounced the same as their but not possessive), 55

they've, 56

thirteen, 1, 45

thirty, 43, 46

thirty-one, 2, 45, 46, 48

this, 6, 30

This is her book., 31

this magazine, 30

this man, 30

thought, 13

three, 1, 6, 17, 25, 27, 38, 40, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52

threw, 13

thrust, 13

Thurs. or THUR, 44

tickets, 27, 39

Time, 3, 16, 43

Time & Numbers, 3, 43

Time is money., 16

to, 5, 7, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 34, 38, 39, 43, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 58

told, 13

too, 58

took, 13

tore, 13

toys, 28

trains, 26, 27, 39

trash/garbage, 8

traveler, 7

trod, 13

truck, 8

Tue. or TUE, 44

twelve, 1, 45, 47

twenty, 2, 45

twenty-one, 46

twenty-three, 2, 46

twenty-two, 46

two, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 16, 25, 26, 27, 32, 40, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 52, 58

two hundred, 46

two hundred twenty-one, 46

Two red cars are parked on the street., 32

two thousand, 46

two weeks, 8

Types of Verbs, 8

U.S. & British Currency, 3, 45, 48

U.S. & British Currency 34, 3, 45, 48

undershirt, 8

understood, 13

United States, 5, 47, 48

upset, 13

us, 34

Use of Adverbs, 32, 33

Used when the question is in the form of a sarcastic interjection:, 52

vacation, 8

vapor, 7

Verb Tense, 1, 9, 15

Verb Tense 12, 1, 9, 15

Verb to arrive, 19, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35, 54

Verb to listen, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35, 54

verbs, 6, 26, 28

Verbs, 3

very, 33, 53

vest, 8

walks, 9

was + arriving = was arriving, 1, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59

was/were, 6, 7, 10, 14, 26, 29, 43, 48, 52, 54

wash cloth, 8

we, 1, 4, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56

We are arguing., 18

We are eating breakfast today on the patio., 49

We are eating breakfast., 49

We are eating., 49

we are listening, 17

We bought ourselves a box of chocolates., 36

We finished dinner., 19

we had, 14, 15, 54, 56

we listen, 16

We shall/will watch television tonight., 22

We went shopping yesterday., 35

we were, 14, 17, 55

We were grateful for his help., 6

We were listening to his speech when the electricity went off., 20

weak, 58

weather, 58

Wed. or WED, 44

wed/wedded, 13

week, 58

Weights, 47

we'll, 55

wept, 13

we're, 55

were + arriving = were arriving, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 34, 35, 36, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

weren't, 55

we've, 56

what, 37, 38, 52, 58

What did you say?, 38

What is the reason?, 38

what? >>> What happened?, 52

when, 6, 29, 41, 52

When I asked, nobody (no one) offered to help., 51

When I looked for it, it was nowhere to be found., 51

When(ever) I see her, she always looks so happy., 41

when? >>> When will it be ready?, 52

where? >>> Where did you go?, 52

where's, 55

whether, 58

which, 5, 30, 31, 37, 38, 52, 58

Which one do you want?, 38

which side, 31

while, 41, 47

who, 5, 37, 38, 52, 58

Who are your friends?, 38

Who can I ask?, 38

Who is coming today?, 38

who? >>> Who is coming?, 52

wholly, 57

whom, 37, 52

whose, 37, 38, 52, 58

Whose coat is this?, 38

whose? >>> Whose coat is that?, 52

why? >>> Why did you do that?, 52

will + arrive = will arrive, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

will have + arrived = will have arrived, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

will have + listened = will have listened, 1, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

Will you help me so (that) I can get to work on time?, 42

Will you help me so that I can get to work on time?, 42

windshield, 8

Winter, 44

wishes, 27

With a Verb, 33

With An Adjective, 33

With An Adverb, 33

with the, 38, 41, 48

With the exception of the third-person singular, the Present Tense uses the infinitive as the verb form. The third-person singular takes the infinitive with an s added:, 15

without, 39, 41

wives, 28

woke/waked, 13

women, 28

won, 13

won't (irregular), 55

Word Differences, 8

Word Order, 3, 49

Word Order 35, 3, 49

wore, 13

wouldn't, 55

would've, 55

wound, 13

wove/weaved, 13

wright, 58

write, 13, 58

wrote, 13, 58

wrung, 13

ya'll (US slang), 56

Yes, I have to go now.No, I still have some time., 53

Yes, I like it.No, I don't like it., 53

Yes, I will.No, I won't be able to finish today., 54

You and I will finish the job., 40

you are listening, 17

You did not listen to me., 51

You gave yourself quite a shock., 36

you had, 14, 15, 43, 56

you listen, 16

You listened to what?, 19

You love me. >>> Do you love me?, 52

You must always remember to do well., 35

You must go immediately., 17

You speak German. >>> Do you speak German?, 52

you were, 14, 17, 54

You yourself need to be aware., 36

you'll, 55

your, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 34, 36, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59

Your bus is late., 31

Your hair is pretty., 35

you're (pronounced the same as your but not possessive), 54

yourself/yourselves, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31, 34, 36, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59

you've, 56

zero, 8

zero (British nil or nought), 45, 47, 48

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