Autor: mgr Renata Kasprzak
mgr Izabela Koszutska
mgr Elżbieta Szczawińska
Język: angielski
Poziom: B2/B2E
Wydział: Architektury
TEXT 1
What is Organic Architecture?
The term "Organic Architecture" was invented by the great architect, Frank Lloyd Wright
(1867-1959). This idea which promotes harmony between man-made structure and the nature
around, through design approach so well integrated that the buildings and surroundings
become part of a unified & interrelated composition.
Objectives
Organic architecture not only addresses environmental concerns but also expresses
individuality. As each building is related to the variables like man, site & time so every
resulting structure is unique & unrepeatable.
Origin & Inspiration
Primitive vernacular architecture was innately organic, based on natural forms, structures and
simple, local materials. The rectilinear, perpendicular form of architecture that came to
dominate the 20th century was the reflection of an industrially driven age. However, in the
new millennium the designers are awakening to a new world inspired by the creative forces of
nature and biological organisms.
It was in the USA that organic architecture began its great modern journey when architect
Louis Sullivan described his famous proverb that form follows function--a key concept for
organic design. Frank Lloyd Wright would often choose sites close to woods, rock
formations, or even waterfalls and his buildings would become part of nature. For Antoni
Gaudí, Spanish architect the straight line belonged to men and the curved line to God.
Characteristics
- The design approach is inspired by nature & the built form grows out of the site, emerging
like an organism from the seed of the nature.
- It is visually poetic, radical in design, multifaceted & surprising, distinctive but flexible &
environmentally conscious.
- Organic architecture is said to be the mother of all architecture- sustainable or bio
architecture, alternative architecture or any other.
Approach
- A respect for natural materials (wood should look like wood)
- Blend into the surroundings (a house should look part of the hill, not perched on it)
- An honest expression of the function of the building (don't make a bank look like a Greek
temple).
Exploring Organic Architecture
New age, architects have taken the concept of organic design to new heights by employing
newer materials & technology in the application of natural shapes, rhythm & composition to
their buildings.
Concerns
Organic or sustainable architecture is evolving fast, but there is a risk of it becoming a
superficial statement engrossed in high-tech science and technology & organic forms being
superimposed from the outside rather than evolving like life from within.
These 5 examples of organic architecture showcase some of the ways designers transform a
lot by learning to bend a little
A Fallingwater house designed and built during 1934-1937 in Pennsylvania, was a
vacation house for the Kaufmann family: Edgar, Liliane and son Edgar Jr., owners of a
department store in Pittsburgh Fallingwater is a synthesis of "organic architecture"; it
integrates man with nature. Set amid 5000 acres of natural wilderness Fallingwater was
constructed of sandstone quarried on the property, reinforced concrete, steel and glass, and
was built by local craftsmen. It follows the concept of integrating environmental factors,
function, native materials, construction process and humans . It is just out over a waterfall on
Bear Run, appearing as naturally formed as the rocks, trees and rhododendrons which
embrace it.
B The Guggenheim Museum in New York City is an example of Frank Lloyd Wright's
use of hemicycle styling. Frank Lloyd Wright created the Guggenheim Museum as a series of
organic shapes. Circular forms spiral down like the interior of a nautilus shell. Visitors to the
museum begin on the upper level and follow a sloping ramp downward through connected
exhibition spaces. At the core, an open rotunda offers views of artwork on several levels.
C The word “organic” conjures up images of living things, and the Hundertwasser
House Vienna reflects that definition by incorporating soil, grass and trees into its structure.
The house - actually a suite of 52 apartments and offices - was built in the early 1980s by
architects Prof. Joseph Krawina and Peter Pelikan. The building's organic features spill out
into the street below in the form of wavy pavement that creeps up and even into a decorative
fountain.
D In Paris is one of the best known examples of organic architecture, though at the time
of its design and construction in the early 1970s the Pompidou Centre was said to express an
“exoskeleton” style. Certainly the inside-out look of the edifice approximates the look of an
exoskeleton, but the exposed ducts and beams also remind one of anatomical drawings. Can't
get much more organic than that
E Last but not least is a mammoth project expected to dominate the skyline of Mumbai,
India. “Waves” will soar 80-stories into the sky and will offer residents incredible views of
the Indian Ocean from its delicately scalloped balconies. Architect Sanjay Puri took the crests
of ocean waves as his inspiration, expressed in the undulating balconies which linearly
traverse each floor. The upwardly flaring style of Waves seems to defy the laws of physics. It
may look organic but - what would Einstein say?
TASK 1
Read the text and find the expressions that mean the following:
1. It takes environment and its problems into considerations.
It _____________________________________________________________.
2. The architecture goes well with the new industrial era.
The architecture is the _____________________________________________.
3. The designers are becoming sensitive to new ideas.
They ___________________________________________________________.
4. This is the most important thing for the design.
This is the ______________________________________________________.
5. It pays attention to the environment.
It is ____________________________________________________________.
6. It should look like the surrounding.
It should ________________________________________________________.
7. They have made it excellent.
They have _______________________________________________________.
8. The form may become more important than the meaning.
It may become a ___________________________________________________.
TASK 2
Read about the examples of organic architecture and decide which building the statement
applies to.
1. The way it was perceived in the beginning was changed. ______________
2. You visit the building from top to bottom. _______________
3. Its design was inspired by the force of water. ____________________
4. It was built with the material found on the premises. _________________
5. The design follows the pattern of a living organism. __________________
6. Not only the building itself is “organic” but its surroundings as well. ______________
7. It looks as if it was impossible. _____________________
8. It was built with things that are not usually used for building. ____________________
VOCABULARY BANK
(mount) bracket wspornik (montażowy)
gap odstęp, przerwa
phase out wyjść z użycia
rear tył, tylny
recognition rozpoznawanie
socket gniazdko
staff pracownicy
Task 1
1 C
2 F
3 A
4 H
5 B
6 D
7 E
8 G
Task 2
1. projector screen
2. mouse cursor
3. corporate organizations
4. slide images
5. scanning technology
6. surf websites
7. rear projection
8. single cable
Autor: mgr Beata Jaśkowska-Derechowska
mgr Janusz Derechowski
Język: angielski
Poziom: B2/B2E
Text 2
Health Hazards of Chemicals
The physical hazards connected with using a chemical include its flammability (the tendency
to burn), corrosivity (the potential to degrade other materials) and reactivity (the potential to
react violently upon contact). The following article discusses the health effects of hazardous
chemicals which, although often less clear than the physical hazards, cannot be
underestimated.
When discussing the health effects of chemicals, two terms are often used interchangeably -
toxicity and hazard. However, the actual meanings of these words are quite different. Toxicity
is an inherent property of a material, similar to its physical constants. It is the ability of a
chemical substance to cause an undesirable effect in a biological system. Hazard is the
likelihood that a material will exert its toxic effects under the conditions of use. Thus, with
proper handling, highly toxic chemicals can be used safely. Conversely, less toxic chemicals
can be extremely hazardous if handled improperly.
The toxic effects of a chemical may be local or systemic. Local injuries involve the area of the
body in contact with the chemical and are typically caused by reactive or corrosive chemicals,
such as strong acids, alkalis or oxidizing agents. Systemic injuries involve tissues or organs
unrelated to or removed from the contact site when toxins have been transported through the
bloodstream. For example, methanol that has been ingested may cause blindness, while a
significant skin exposure to nitrobenzene may effect the central nervous system. Certain
chemicals may affect a target organ. For example, lead primarily affects the brain, kidney and
red blood cells; isocyanates may induce an allergic reaction (immune system); and chloroform
may cause tumors in the liver and kidneys.
It is important to distinguish between acute and chronic exposure and toxicity. Acute toxicity
results from a single, short exposure. Effects usually appear quickly and are usually
reversible. Chronic toxicity results from repeated exposure over a long period of time. Effects
are usually delayed and gradual, and may be irreversible. For example, the acute effect of
alcohol exposure (ingestion) is intoxication, while the chronic effect is cirrhosis of the liver.
The health risk of a chemical is a function of the toxicity and the exposure. Particularly
dangerous are substances that have a high degree of acute toxicity, carcinogens and
reproductive toxins. Acutely toxic substances may be fatal or cause damage to a target organ
as a result of a single exposure or an exposure of short duration. Examples include hydrogen
cyanide, dimethylmercury, and diisopropyl fluorophosphate. Carcinogens are known for their
ability to cause cancer. The latency period for most cancers ranges from twenty to forty years.
The risk of developing cancer from exposure to a chemical increases with the length of
exposure and with the exposure concentration. Reproductive toxins are chemicals which
affect the reproductive system, including mutagens (those which cause chromosomal damage)
and embryotoxins (which may be lethal to the fertilized egg, embryo or fetus) and teratogenic
substances (able to cause fetal malformations).
No matter how toxic the material may be, there is little risk involved unless it enters the body.
An assessment of the toxicity of the chemicals and the possible routes of entry will help
determine what protective measures should be taken.
Routes of Entry
Skin and Eye Contact
The simplest way for chemicals to enter the body is through direct contact with the skin or
eyes. Skin contact with a chemical may result in a local reaction, such as a burn or rash, or
absorption into the bloodstream. Absorption into the bloodstream may then allow the
chemical to cause toxic effects on other parts of the body. The absorption of a chemical
through intact skin is influenced by the health of the skin and the properties of the chemical.
Skin that is dry or cracked or has lacerations offers less resistance. Fat-soluble substances,
such as many organic solvents, can easily penetrate skin and, in some instances, can alter the
skin's ability to resist absorption of other substances.
Wear gloves and other protective clothing to minimize skin exposure. Symptoms of skin
exposure include dry, whitened skin, redness and swelling, rashes or blisters, and itching. In
the event of chemical contact on skin, rinse the affected area with water for at least 15
minutes, removing contaminated clothing while rinsing, if necessary.
Chemical contact with eyes can be particularly dangerous, resulting in painful injury or loss of
sight. Wearing safety glasses or chemical splash goggles can reduce the risk of eye contact.
Eyes that have been in contact with chemicals should be rinsed immediately with water
continuously for at least 15 minutes. Contact lenses should be removed while rinsing—do not
delay rinsing to remove the lenses. Medical attention is necessary if symptoms persist.
Inhalation
The respiratory tract is the most common route of entry for gases, vapors and particles. These
materials may be transported into the lungs and exert localized effects, or be absorbed into the
bloodstream. Factors that influence the absorption of these materials may include the vapor
pressure of the material, solubility, particle size, its concentration in the inhaled air, and the
chemical properties of the material. The vapor pressure describes how quickly a substance
evaporates into the air - higher concentrations in air cause greater exposure in the lungs and
greater absorption in the bloodstream.
Most chemicals have an odor that is perceptible at a certain concentration, referred to as the
odor threshold. Olfactory fatigue may occur when exposed to high concentrations or after
prolonged exposure to some substances. This may cause the odor to seem to diminish or
disappear, while the danger of overexposure remains.
Symptoms of over-exposure may include headaches, increased mucus production, and eye,
nose and throat irritation. Narcotic effects, including confusion, dizziness, drowsiness or
collapse, may result from exposure to some substances, particularly to many solvents. In the
event of exposure, close containers, open windows or otherwise increase ventilation, and
move to fresh air. If symptoms persist, seek medical attention.
Volatile hazardous materials should be used in a well-ventilated area, preferably a fume hood,
to reduce the potential of exposure. Occasionally, ventilation may not be adequate and a fume
hood may not be practical, necessitating the use of a respirator.
Ingestion
The gastrointestinal tract is another possible route of entry for toxic substances. Although
direct ingestion of a laboratory chemical is unlikely, exposure may occur as a result of
ingesting contaminated food or beverages, touching the mouth with contaminated fingers, or
swallowing inhaled particles which have been cleared from the respiratory system. The
possibility of exposure by this route may be reduced by not eating, drinking, smoking, or
storing food in the laboratory, and by washing hands thoroughly after working with
chemicals, even when gloves were worn.
Direct ingestion may occur as a result of the outdated and dangerous practice of mouth
pipetting. In the event of accidental ingestion, do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so
by a health care provider.
Injection
The final possible route of exposure to chemicals is by injection. Injection effectively
bypasses the protection provided by intact skin and provides direct access to the bloodstream,
thus, to internal organ systems. Injection may occur through mishaps with syringe needles or
through accidents with pipettes, broken glassware or other sharp objects that have been
contaminated with toxic substances.
If injection has occurred, wash the area with soap and water and seek medical attention, if
necessary. Cautious use of any sharp object is always important. Substituting cannulas for
syringes and wearing gloves may also reduce the possibility of injection.
Task 1
State which of the following statements are true and which are false.
1. Toxicity and hazard refer to the same properties.
2. Skin exposure to nitrobenzene may result in a systemic injury.
3. Acutely toxic substances can damage an organ even after a single exposure.
4. Fat-soluble substances can never influence skin's ability to resist other substances.
5. In case of contact with a chemical the affected area of skin needs to be rinsed for no longer
than 15 minutes.
6. Most gases are not perceptible below the odor threshold.
7. Ventilation is always desirable when in contact with volatile hazardous materials.
8. Accidental injection of chemicals may occur even through a contact with contaminated
broken glass.
Task 2
Match the words in column A with words in column B to create collocations and phrases used
in the article.
Column A Column B
1. corrosive effect
2. respiratory solvent
3. medical threshold
4. contact exposure
5. odor chemicals
6. undesirable system
7. organic lenses
8. single attention
VOCABULARY BANK
Vocabulary
exposure wystawienie na działanie czynników zewnętrznych
hazard ryzyko, niebezpieczeństwo
ingestion przyjmowanie pokarmów
lethal śmiertelny
oxidizing oksydowanie, utlenianie
rinse płukać, przemywać
solvent rozpuszczalnik
Health Hazards of Chemicals
Task 1
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. False
6. True
7. False
8. True
Task 2
1. undesirable effect
2. organic solvent
3. odor threshold
4. single exposure
5. corrosive chemicals
6. respiratory system
7. contact lenses
8. medical attention
Autor: mgr Renata Kasprzak
mgr Izabela Koszutska
mgr Elżbieta Szczawińska
Język: angielski
Poziom: B2/B2E
Wydział: Budownictwa Lądowego i Wodnego
TEXT 1
Building A House
Taking the decision to build your is just the first step in a long process. There are a number of
things that you will have to do and will have to keep in mind while building your house. Here
are a few tips on the procedures that you should follow while building your house.
A First and foremost you will have to find the finance to build your house. You could
approach your bank or a mortgage company to provide you with the required money to
complete your house. Your financial capacity will be calculated based of your commitments
and responsibilities. Total pay back should not exceed 40 to 42% of your gross revenue (total
revenue before taxes and deductions).
B To decide how much finance you require you will have to budget. While making a
budget you could consult a professional or do it yourself. Remember to budget for everything
including fencing, landscaping and essential appliances and furniture within the house. Build
some flexibility into your budget for related expenses such as a notary fees, municipal taxes,
school and welcome taxes (transfer taxes), life, disability and home insurance, etc
C If finances are not a problem, identify your needs, but also keep in mind financial
matters and construction standards. Clearly identify the needs of everyone that will live in the
house and be sure your project respects municipal and provincial standards. Plan the building
sequence, who will do what, and the purchasing of the material
D Along with a technologist and an architect prepare a plan. This plan will guarantee
construction that complies with your requests and requirements. The municipality can also
require a plan before providing you with the permits and authorizations you need.
When you have a plan for the house, you have to find the right location. Or the other way
to do it is to find the plot and then plan the house to fit the plot.
E Once the plan is ready make a number of copies of the plan, as you will have to give
copies of the plan to the various offices that will approve your house and finance it. Many sub
trades would like a copy of the plan to give you an estimate of the cost of their job.
F Now apply for a construction permit. Before starting construction work, you must
make sure your project complies with the standards, laws and regulations in effect. Plans and
quotations that haven't been validated by a building inspector from the municipality could
cost you. The building inspector is a resource that will help you to ensure your plan complies
with the municipality's requirements - in the particular area in which you're building - in
matters of electric power, water supply and sewage. He'll also validate your plan in light of
the municipality's urban development plan which generally takes into consideration the
quality of life of its citizens and the need for harmonious development. Look at the
municipality as an ally that will guide you through the different steps of your project.
G You've chosen the plan. You've chosen the land. Financing has been approved. What
if the roof falls on your head? Yes, even if you are not yet living in your house, you need to
have an insurance during the whole duration of the construction.
H It is best to have a General Contractor who will oversee all the work. The first trades
that he will have to contact are the Surveyors, the Framing Crew and Excavator. Inform the
electric company that you will need a temporary power connection.
Here are the steps, more or less chronologically, that should normally lead to the completion
of your project:
Construction permit
Surveying
General plan
Excavating
Installation of a temporary electric line
Footing formwork
Foundation formwork & concrete
Foundation damp proofing
Rough plumbing (drainage)
Backfilling
Crushed stone bed
Floor & wall framing (1st level)
Floor & wall framing (2nd level)
Roof trusses and soffits
Roof plywood
Roof shingle starter (soaker and counterflashing)
Shingles
Doors and windows
Interior partitions
Window flashings
Exterior siding (brick, fascia, soffits, vinyl, etc.)
Initial electrical wiring
Rough plumbing
Heating system
Wall and ceiling insulation
Moisture barrier
Finishing panels for walls and ceilings
Installation of plasterboard and pulling of joints
Balconies and platforms
Interior finishing
Stairs
Interior/exterior paint
Cabinets and vanities
Floor covering (except hard wood)
Pouring concrete slabs for the basement and garage
Gutters
Exterior stucco
Plumbing - finishing
Electricity - finishing
Interior decorating
Landscaping
Final check
Washing and cleaning
Final inspection
Building the house that will become a major part of your estate is an important longterm
project that requires methodical, step by step execution.
TASK 1 READING COMPREHENSION
The following information is included in the paragraphs. Match the information with the
appropriate paragraph. There is one extra sentence that does not match any paragraph.
Which paragraph says that
1. You have to plan the order of activities _____
2. It is important to plan your budget with a margin for some extras _____
3. Identifies possible problems _____
4. You will have to hand out the plan of the house to different executing parties _____
5. You have to take some precautions in case some accidents happen _____
6. Somebody should supervise the work for you _____
7. You have to find resources to finance your house _____
8. Your plan has to be approved by the local authorities _____
9. Before obtaining a building permit, you'll have to provide a plan _____
TASK 2 VOCABULARY
Look at the list of steps that lead to the completion of your project and choose the best option
to complete the sentences.
1. ________________________________ are laid from the bottom of the roof up.
A/ gutters B/ cabinets and vanities C/ shingles
2. The open-plan office is space not separated by any _________________________.
A/ exterior sidings B/ interior partitions C/ trusses
3. A thick ________________________, supported on foundations, is used to construct
the ground floor of a building.
A/ floor covering B/ crushed stone bed C/ concrete slab
4. If the foundation cracks because of premature __________________________, it will
result in cracked walls.
A/ backfilling B/ rough plumbing C/ electrical wiring
5. Proper ______________________________ is an effective way to save energy and
money.
A/ wall insulation B/ foundation damp proofing C/ window flashings
6. The ___________________________ is a plaster type of material that is made from
cement, sand and lime.
A/ plywood B/ soffits C/ stucco
7. ______________________________ your foundations can only be executed when the
concrete is well dried.
A/ excavating B/ damp proofing C/ draining
8. The ______________________________ play a specific load-bearing role inasmuch
as they support the weight of the building.
A/ foundations B/ ceilings C/ trusses
VOCABULARY BANK
mortgage - kredyt hipoteczny
to mortgage a house
municipal - miejski, komunalny
municipal building, municipal waste
to comply with - uwzględniać, spełniać (warunki)
to comply with regulations/standards
estimate - oszacowanie, kosztorys
an estimate for repairing the roof
plot - działka
surveying - pomiary (np. geodezyjne)
damp - wilgoć
backfilling - zasypywanie wykopów
slab - płyta
floor slab, pavement slab
Building a House
TASK 1
1. C
2. B
3. x
4. E
5. G
6. H
7. A
8. F
9. D
TASK 2
1. C
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. A
Autor: mgr Renata Kasprzak
mgr Izabela Koszutska
mgr Elżbieta Szczawińska
Poziom: B2/B2E
Wydział: Budownictwa Lądowego i Wodnego
TEXT 2
Bridges
Humans have been constructing bridges since ancient times. The earliest bridges were
probably nothing more than felled trees used to cross rivers or ditches. As civilization
advanced, artisans discovered ways to use stone, rock, mortar, and other natural materials to
construct longer and stronger bridges. Finally, as physicists and engineers began to develop
the principles underlying bridge construction, they incorporated other materials such as iron,
steel, and aluminum into the bridges they built. There are four major types of bridges: beam,
cantilever, arch, and suspension.
A Beam bridges
The simplest type of bridge consists of a single piece of material that stretches from one side
of a barrier to the other side. That piece of material—called a beam or girder—rests directly
on the ground on each side or is supported on heavy foundations known as piers. The length
of a beam bridge is limited by the weight of the beam itself plus the weight of the traffic it
carries. Longer beam bridges can be constructed by joining a number of beams to each other
in parallel sections.
B Cantilever bridges
A cantilever bridge is a variation of the simple beam bridge. A cantilever is a long arm that is
anchored at one end and is free to move at the opposite end. A diving board is an example of a
cantilever. When anchored firmly, a cantilever is a very strong structure. It consists of three
parts: the outer beams, the cantilevers, and the central beam. The on-shore edge of the outer
beam is attached to the ground itself or to a pier (usually a vertical column of reinforced
concrete) that is sunk into the ground. The opposite edge of the outer beam is attached to a
second pier, sunk into the ground at some distance from the shore. Also attached to the offshore
pier is one end of a cantilever. The free end of the cantilever extends outward into the
middle of the gap between the shores. The cantilevers on either side of the gap are then joined
by the central beam.
C Arch bridges
The main supporting structure in an arch bridge is one or more curved elements. The dead and
live forces that act on the arch bridge are transmitted along the curved line of the arch into
abutments or supporting structures at either end. These abutments are sunk deep into the
ground, into bedrock if at all possible. They are, therefore, essentially immovable and able to
withstand very large forces exerted on the bridge itself. This structure is so stable that piers
are generally unnecessary in an arch bridge.
The roadway of an arch bridge can be placed anywhere with relationship to the arch: on top of
it, beneath it, or somewhere within the arch. The roadway is attached to the arch by vertical
posts (ribs and columns) if the roadway is above the arch, by ropes or cables (suspenders) if
the roadway is below the arch, and by some combination of the two if the roadway is
somewhere within the arch.
D Suspension bridges
In a suspension bridge, thick wire cables run across the top of at least two towers and are
anchored to the shorelines within heavy abutments. In some cases, the roadway is supported
directly by suspenders from the cables. In other cases, the suspenders are attached to a truss,
on top of which the roadway is laid. In either case, the dead and light loads of the bridge are
transmitted to the cables which, in turn, exert stress on the abutments. That stress is
counteracted by attaching the abutments to bedrock.
The towers in a suspension bridge typically rest on massive foundations sunk deep into the
riverbed or seabed beneath the bridge itself. The wire cables that carry the weight of the
bridge and its traffic are made of parallel strands of steel wire woven together to make a
single cable. Such cables typically range in diameter from about 15 inches (38 centimeters) to
as much as 36 inches (91 centimeters).
E Movable bridges
Traditionally, three kinds of movable bridges have been constructed over waterways to allow
the passage of boat traffic. In a swing bridge, the roadway rotates around a central span, a
large, heavy pier sunk into the river bottom. In a bascule bridge, the roadway is raised like an
ancient drawbridge. It can be lifted either at one end or split in two halves in the middle, each
half rising in the opposite direction. In a vertical-lift bridge, the whole central portion of the
bridge is raised straight up by means of steel ropes.
TASK 1 Words to Know
Match the words to their definitions:
1.Abutment: A Vertical columns, usually made of reinforced concrete or some other
strong material, on which bridges rest.
2.Bedrock: B The force exerted by a bridge as a result of its own weight.
3.Dead load: C The force exerted on a bridge as a result of the traffic moving across
the bridge.
4.Dynamic load: D Portion of Earth's mantle made of solid rock on which permanent
structures can be built.
5.Live load: E Ropes or steel wires from which the roadway of a bridge is
suspended.
6.Piers: F A structure that consists of a number of triangles joined to each other.
7.Suspenders: G Heavy supporting structures usually attached to bedrock and
supporting bridge piers.
8.Truss: H The force exerted on a bridge as a result of unusual environmental
factors, such as earthquakes or strong gusts of wind.
TASK 2 READING COMPREHENSION
Read the text about the five types of bridges and match the information in the question with
the type of bridge.
Which bridge
1. Is a more complex version of the simplest type of bridge
2. Can be of limited length
3. Is so stable that piers are redundant
4. Is meant to enable water traffic
5. Has abutments that can bear enormous forces
6. Has three subtypes
7. Makes it possible to construct the road in two different ways
8. Has one end free