I What is lg

1.What does mean to „know” a lg ??

1. being able to produce sound which signify meanings and be understood & interpret the sounds produce by others

2. much of linguistic knowledge in unconscious knowledge; we know without being aware of it, which sounds and part of our lg ad which are not.

3. Knowledge of lg also includes knowing the environment which particular sounds can appear in.

The most important aspect of unknowing a lg: knowing that certain sounds or sound sequences signify or represent different concepts or „meanings”.

4. The relationship between speech sounds and the meanings which they represent (for the most part) are arbitrary.

5. Sound symbolism - onomatopoeic e.g. cockle-a - doodle - doo, plop, hiss

Knowledge of a lg enables sb to combine word to form phrases, and phrases to form sentences (Impossible to memorize all the possible sentences in a lg). There is finite numbers but infinite number of sentences.

Creative aspect of lg i.e. lg creativity

No enough to key words to knwe words to be able to communicate (we need rules)

II Linguistic competence and performance

1. Linguistic competence - what one knows (the knowledge about lg rules etc.). Competence is our conscious knowledge; we lear the rules without being taught.

2. Linguistic performance - how oe uses the knowledge i actual behavior. Using the lg we make mistakes e.g. slips of the togue, false startsm etc. However we ca recognise errors.

3. Spoonerism - we change the meaning of seteces by combining the soud i different way.

Examples: ”you have hissed my mistery lecture - You have missed my history lecture” ”you have tasted the whole worm- you have wasted the whole term ” ”queer old dean - dear old queen”

III What is the grammar

Grammar - what we know, our linguistic competence, internalised, ucoscious set of rules. Grammar can be understood in two ways: the grammar which speakers have i their brains and the model of description of this internalised grammar. No lg or variety of lg is superior to any other, i linguistic sense.

Descriptive grammar - describe the lg how it use

Prescriptive grammar - says which rule is correct and what is correct or ot, how to use the lg.

The grammar includes everything what speakers know about their lg:

1. phonetics - the articulation ad perception of speach sounds

2. morphology - word formatio

3. syntax - sentence formatio

4. semantics - the iterpretation of word and senteces

Linguistic main attempt - to fid out the laws of a lg and use laws that pertain to all lgs

Universal grammar - law represeting the universal properties of all lgsm eg:

1. sound systems of lgs - every grammar includes discrete soud segmets like p n or a

2. sematics universal - male, female, concrete

3. uiversal syntax

I The origins of lg

1. The divine source - lg given by God

2. The natural source of soud - (sound source) primitive words could have been `bow - wow' theory of lg origin onomatopoeic- echoing natural sounds.

3. Original souds of lg - may have come from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger, joy eg.och! ah! Ooh! Yuck! - produced with sudden intakes of breath or exhalied breath; contain souds which are not otherwise used in speech.

4. Yo-he-ho theory - souds of a perso involved in physical effort could be the source of lg.

5. The phisacal adeptation source:

1. teeth - upright, not slantig outwards, roughly even i height - helpful in makig f or v

2. lips - flexible - helpful i makig p or b

3. mouth - rather small, can be opened and closed

4. tongue - thick and muscular, can be used to shape a variety of sounds inside the oral cavity

5. larynx - voice box (contains the vocal cords/ folds differs - significantly in position from other primates, upright posture moved the head more directly above the spiral column and the larynx dropped to lower position, this created a longer cavity called the pharynx, above the vocal cords, which acts as a resonator for increased range and clarity of the sounds produced via the larynx).

6. the human brain - unusually large to human body size

7. lateralized - specialize function movements involved in things like speaking & object manipulation (making or using) are largely copied to the left hemisphere.

6. The genetic source - babies are born with a special capacity for lgm it's aviate ad is't tide to a specific variety of lg - lateness hypothesis.

I Animal and human lg

1. Properties of human lg

1. communicative signals - intentional message send to other people

2. informative signals - intentionally, when we don't want to communicate anything but our behavior tells it

3. displacement - reference to past and future time

4. arbitrariness - not natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning

5. productivity - (creativity, open - endedness) creating new expressions and novel utterances

6. Fixed reference - limiting feature of animal communication (they can convey only simple things anger, hungry etc.)

7. cultural transmission - lg passed from one generation to the next

8. duality - lg organized at two levels/ layers. Combine the same sounds to communicate different messages

2. Properties not unique to human lg

1. Vocal - auditory channel - lg signals are sent using the vocal organs and received by the ears.

2. Specialization - lg signals do not serve any other type of purpose such as breathing or feeding

3. Non- directionality - lg signals have no inherit direction and can be picked up by anyone within hearing even unseen

4. Rapid fade - lg signals are produced and disappear quickly

5. Reciprocity - ay sender of a lg signal can also be a receiver

6. Prevarication - lg signals can be false or used to lie or deceive

3. Talking to animals

1. Washoe

2. Premark

Morphology

Lexicon -mental dictionary

Morphology - system of categories & rules involved in world formation and interpretation.

Words-smallest free forms found in lg

Morpheme - smallest unit that carries info. About meaning or function.

Free morph- can B a word by itself

Bound morph- must be attached to another element

Lexical morph- nouns, verbs, adjectives (open class)

Functional morph- conjunctions, articles, prepositions, pronouns (closed class)

Derivational morph- used to create new words or change word grammatical category

Inflectional morph- indicate aspects of grammatical function of a word (NCC)

Allomorphs- diff variants of one morpheme

Root morph- carries major component of words meaning (B2LC)

Affixes- do not belong 2 lexical category, always bound

Base- form to which AFF is added

Word-based morphology- EN, because roots are usually free morphemes

Problematic cases:

-bound root -unkempt, horrify

-unrecognizable morphemes-receive, deceive, conceive

-cranberry morphemes

Common morph phenomena

-affixation

-suppletion- go went

-internal change- drive drove

-stress & tone placement

-reduplication- tatabuch llrun FULL tfabuk tfabuk vq

1. Phonetic - study of the characteristic of speech sound

1. articulatory -the study of how speech sounds are made/ articulated

2. acoustic phonetics - deals with the physical properties of speech as sounds as sound waves in the air

3. auditory / perceptual phonetics - deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds

2. Voiced and voiceless (when the vocal cords vibrate or not)
   
   

I Linguistic word formation

DERIVATION (derywacja) - word formation (prefixes, suffixes, infixes);

INFLECTION (odmiana) - number, person, gander, aspect, tense, voice, mood

WORD- FORMATION PROCESS:

Coinage: aspirin, nylonm, vizir (new word, name for new invention, product)

Borrowing: alcochol (Arabic), boss (Dutch), croissant (France)

loan - translation (calque): skyscraper - un gratteciel (Fr. A scrape - sky), perros calientes (Sp Hot - dog), Ubermensch (superman)

compounding: bookcase, fingerprint, wallpaper, greenhouse vs. green house, redcoat (soldier) vs. red coat

blending: brunchm, smog, oxbridge, chunnel, telecast, spanglish , Franglais, breathhalyser

Brunch = breakfast + lunch

Chunnel = channek + tunnel

Telecast = television + broadcast

Spanglish = English + Spanish

clipping when we shorter some word- but categories are not changed

fax - facsimile, fan - fanatic, lab - laboratory, flu - fluenza, gym - gymnasium, hi-fi - high fidelity

new words based on the name of a person or a place:

jeans (Genoa), Sandwich (Earl of Sandwitch), Fahrenheit (Gabriel Farenhait)

backformation the category of a word in changed:

television- televise; emotion - emote; globe-trotter - globe-trot; sculptor - sculpt

hypocorisms reduction of longer word + y/ie:

movie, telly, Aussie (Australian), barbie, bookie (bookmaker), brekky (breakfast), hankie, chrissy pressies (christmas presents)

conversion (zero derivation)

paper - to paper (v)

must - a must (n)

want to be - wannabe (n)

dirty - to dirty (v)

a guess - to guess (v)

print out - a printout (n)

SUBSTANCIAL CHANGE IN MEANING

A doctor - to doctor (informant = neuter, poison, falsify

Run around - give sb the runaround (to refuse to help someone, sending them to someone or some-where else to get help)

II Properties & compounds

1. A-N COMPOUNDS

Most of them characterized by a more prominent stress on their first component

(stress is longer) `greenhouse / green `house

In non- compounds the 2^nd element is generally stressed

Examples:

Blackboard - chalkboard

Black board - a board which is black

Wetsuit - a driver's costume

Wet suit - suit which is w

Tense and plural manners can typically not be attached to the 1^st element

Example:
The player dropped kick the ball through the goalposts (ill - formed, formed incorrectly)
The player drop kicked…

Plural marking on the 1^st element is usually disallowed

Example:

* The foxes hunter didn't have a licence

The fox huters didn't have a license

* The roads map are expencive

The road maps are expencive

Exceptions: passers-by; parks supervisor; mothers-in-law

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS

endocentric the rightmost component identifies the genera class which the meaning of the entire word belongs

Example:

Dog food - type of food

Cave man - type of man

exocentric the meaning of the compound doea not follow from meanings of its part

Example:

Greenbotley - a fly

Redneck - ultra conservative, white working - class person

Sugardaddy - a woman's old, reach lover

III Pluralization in English compounds

In endocentric compounds

• oak leaves (leaf)

• wisdom teeth (tooth)

• club feet (foot)

• policemen (policeman)

In exocentric compounds

• maple leafs

• sabre tooths

• bigfoots

• walmans

IV Incorporation

The combination a word (usu. A noun) with a verb to form a compound verb

Example:

Ponapean

without incorporation:

I pahn pereki lohs

I will unroll mat

= I'll unroll the mats

with incorporation:

I paun perek - 1 os

I will unroll-mat
= I'll engage in mat unrolli

V Multiple process
Deli - delicatessen (clipping, borrowing)

Lase - lasser (acronym, backformation)

Waspish - WASP (acronym, derivation)
I PHONOLOGY - descripotion of the systems and pattern of speach suouds in a lg.

phoneme

- meanining - distinguishing sound in a lg

- the single sound type, which come to be represented by a single written form.

- an abstract segment

/t/ used to indicate a phoneme

[t] for each phonetic or phisically produced segment

- esential property of phoneme is that it functions contrastively, e.g.

/f/ or [v] as in fat - vat; fine - vine

Phoneme- the abstract unit or sound type (in the mind) /t/

Phones - different versions of the phoneme, regulary produced in actual speech (in the mounth) [t]

Allophones - a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme [t ] [t ] [D]

Minimal pars - 2 words identical in form exept for a contrast in one phoneme, occuring in the same position: bet - bed, site - side, shake - sake

Minimal sets- a group of words that can be different by changing one phoneme (always in the same position): big - pig - rig - fig - dig - wig

phonotactics - constrains of the sequence or position of english phonemes.

- possible sequence - e.g. lig, vig (accidetal gaps)

- impossible sequence- e.g. [ / ] (systematic gaps)

open syllables (have an onset and nucles, but no coda, e.g. me, to, no)

closed syllables (when a coda is present, e.g. up, cup, at, hat)

The onset and the coda can consist more than one consonant know that as a consonant cluster

II CO-ARTICULATION EFFECTS - the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the nesxt sound.

assimilation

- same aspect of one segment is taken

- or `copied' by another segment in sequence, e.g. /I/ and /æ/ are realised in pin, pan, can /kæn/, but in can go becomes /n/

dissimilation - the opposite of assimilation

Results in two sounds becoming less alike in articulatory or acoustic term, e.g. `fifths' [fɪfθs] becomes [fɪfts]

elision (deletion)

The process of not pronouncing a sound that might be present in the pronounciation of a word in insolation,

You and me; Guns'n'Roses, Friendship, He must have been, He must be

Epenthesis - process that inserts a syllabic or non syllabic segment. Withi an existing string of segments.

Warmth and something In casual speech [p] is inserted

Metathesis -process that reorders a sequence of segment. It often results in a sequence of phones thet is easier to articulate.

Spaghetti -> pesghetti; prescribe -prescription -> perescribe - perescription

vowel reduction

been /i:/ -> /i/ - in rapid speech

Liason /linking

R-starring/star in staring/stare at

J-seeing/see in weighing/weigh all

W-suing/sue Arthur showing/show it

-If 1st vowel is NOT high, a linking r is used

-If 1st vowel is high, a glide is inserted between the two vowels - [j], [w]

Intrusive r - Appears in contexts where no plausible source of historical or underlying /r/ exists. Emma Atkins, spa annex, vanilla and banana ice-cream, Mr Yamashita and me.

Pragmatics- study of intended meaning

Invisible meaning- recognition of what is meant even when it isn't said, based on assumptions and expectations

Linguistic context (co-text)- set of other words used in same phrase or sentence

Physical context- connected wit time and place where we encounter linguistic expressions

Deixis- words possible to interpret only when physical context is known. Here, There, This, That

Deictic expressions- Time, Place, Person

Reference- act of using lg to enable lsnr to identify sth

Inference- any additional info used by lsnr to connect what was said to what must be meant.

Anaphora- a referring expression, subsequent reference to already introduced entity

Antecedent- first mention

Presupposition- what spkr assumes is true or known by lsnr

Constancy under negation- presupposition true for negative meaning

Speech act- action performed by spkr with utterance, requesting, commanding, questioning, informing

Direct speech act- 2 provide info

Indirect speech act- form used to perform other function that structure implies

Face- your public self-image

Politeness- showing awareness to sb's face

Face threatening act- threat to sb's self image, ordering. Do it right now!

Face saving act- saying sth that lessens threat, indirect speech. Could you do it now?

Negative face act- need to be independent and have freedom from imposition. I'm sorry to bother you

Positive face- need to be connected, belong to, be member of group. Let's do I together…

Implicature- inferences about what is said but not actually meant. Are you coming to the party tonight? I've got exam tomorrow.

Coop principle- participants in conversation are cooperating with each other.

Conceptual meaning- literal meaning of the word

Associative meaning- associations or connotations attached 2 word

Semantic Features- procedures 4 analyzing meaning

Agent- entity that performs action

Theme(patient)- entity involved/affected with action

Instrument- entity that agent use 2 perform action

Experiencer- entity who/which have feeling, perception, state

Location- where entity is

Source- where entity moves from

Goal- where entity moves to

Lexical relations

Synonyms- words with similar/same meaning

Antonyms- words with opposite meaning

Gradable- negative does not mean opposite (not big doesn't mean it is… small)

Non gradable- negative means the opposite (if sth is not alive, it means is dead)

Reversives- tie/untie, pack/unpack, raise/lower, enter/exit

Hyponymy- meaning of one form included in meaning of another (dog=animal, daisy=flower)

Co-hyponyms- couple exemplars of one category (dog, horse=animal)

Superordinate- category which have some exemplars (insect=ant, cockroach)

Prototype- clearest example of category

Homophony- two or more written forms with the same pronunciation (bare-bear, meat-meet)

Homonymy- one form, two or more unrelated meanings (bank, bat, race)

Polysemy- one form with multiple meanings which are related by extension (head, run, face)

Metonymy- connection btw words which are close in everyday meaning (bottle+coke, king+crown)

Collocation paraphrase- two sentences that can have the same meaning

Denotation- dictionary definition

Connotation- associations connected to the word, emotional suggestions (snake=evil, danger)

Intension- internal concept of a term or concept, that constitutes its formal definition (ship=water vehicle)

Extension- range of applicability by naming the particular objects (cargo ships, battleships)

Syntatic categories

Determiner (Det) - the, a this, these

Degree word (Deg) - too, so, very, more

Qualifier (Qual) - always, often, never

Auxiliary (Aux) - will, can, must

Conjunction (Con) - and, or, but

Noun (N) - boy, Harry, moisture

Verb (V) - arrive, discuss, hear

Adjective (A) - good, tall, old

Preposition (P) - to, in, on,

Adverb (Adv) - silently, slowly, quietly

P - phrase

NP, VP, AP, PP - phrase level

N, V, A, P - word level

N, V, A, P are heads

Specifiers (Det), (Qual), (Deg) - attached to the top level of phrase structure, to the left of the head

[NP the books about the war]

[VP never eat a hamburger]

[AP quite certain about Mary]

[PP almost in the house]

Complements - attached to the right of the head

Constituent - syntactic unit

Adjunction- Category B is adjoined to category A

Adjuncts are always the sisters of bar-level categories in the phrase.

(manner, place, time etc.)

Complement: daughter of X', sister of X	Adjunct: daughter of X', sister of X`
the parents of the twins several glasses of water the destruction of the city the experts on robotics criticise the book around the block	the parents from Detroit several glasses on the table the destruction during the war the experts at IBM

EXAMPLES:

[NP an analysis of the sentence with tree diagrams]

[AP so fond of coffee after dinner]

[NP a silly analysis of the sentence]

[AdvP clearly faster than me]

The sister of an adjunct should be replaceable with one, while the sister of a complement should not be.

Q: Did you meet the parents of Janey and Billy? Q: Did you meet the parents from Chicago?

A: ??No, but I met the ones of the twins. A: No, but I met the ones from Detroit.

Complements and adjuncts can both follow the head. Do so-replacement can omit an adjunct, but not a complement.

I ate on Monday, but did not do so on Tuesday.

I ate cheese, but did not do so pie.

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