A MINI-COURSE ON THE
PRINCIPLES OF PLASMA DISCHARGES
Michael A. Lieberman
c
Michael A. Lieberman, 2003. All rights reserved.
A MINI-COURSE ON THE
PRINCIPLES OF PLASMA DISCHARGES
Michael A. Lieberman
c
Michael A. Lieberman, 2003. All rights reserved.
OUTLINE
• Introduction to Plasma Discharges and Processing
• Summary of Plasma Fundamentals
— Break —
• Summary of Discharge Fundamentals
• Analysis of Discharge Equilibrium
• Inductive RF Discharges
ORIGIN OF MINI-COURSE
45 hr graduate course at Berkeley =
⇒
12 hr short course in industry =
⇒
4 hr mini-course
INTRODUCTION TO PLASMA DISCHARGES
AND PROCESSING
-1-
PLASMAS AND DISCHARGES
• Plasmas:
A collection of freely moving charged particles which is, on the
average, electrically neutral
• Discharges:
Are driven by voltage or current sources
Charged particle collisions with neutral particles are important
There are boundaries at which surface losses are important
Ionization of neutrals sustains the plasma in the steady state
The electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with the ions
• Device sizes ∼ 30 cm – 1 m
• Driving frequencies from DC to rf (13.56 MHz) to microwaves
(2.45 GHz)
-2-
TYPICAL PROCESSING DISCHARGES
-3-
RANGE OF MICROELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS
• Etching
Si, a-Si, oxide, nitride, III-V’s
• Ashing
Photoresist removal
• Deposition (PECVD)
Oxide, nitride, a-Si
• Oxidation
Si
• Sputtering
Al, W, Au, Cu, YBaCuO
• Polymerization
Various plastics
• Implantation
H, He, B, P, O, As, Pd
-4-
ANISOTROPIC ETCHING
Wet Etching
Ion Enhanced Plasma Etching
Plasma Etching
-5-
ISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING
1. Start with inert molecular gas CF
4
2. Make discharge to create reactive species:
CF
4
−→ CF
3
+ F
3. Species reacts with material, yielding volatile product:
Si + 4F
−→ SiF
4
↑
4. Pump away product
5. CF
4
does not react with Si; SiF
4
is volatile
ANISOTROPIC PLASMA ETCHING
6. Energetic ions bombard trench bottom, but not sidewalls:
(a) Increase etching reaction rate at trench bottom
(b) Clear passivating films from trench bottom
Mask
Plasma
Ions
-6-
UNITS AND CONSTANTS
• SI units: meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), coulombs (C)
e = 1.6
× 10
−19
C, electron charge =
−e
• Energy unit is joule (J)
Often use electron-volt
1 eV = 1.6
× 10
−19
J
• Temperature unit is kelvin (K)
Often use equivalent voltage of the temperature:
T
e
(volts) =
kT
e
(kelvins)
e
where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38
× 10
−23
J/K
1 V
⇐⇒ 11, 600 K
• Pressure unit is pascals (Pa); 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
Atmospheric pressure
≈ 10
5
Pa
≡ 1 bar
Often use English units for gas pressures
Atmospheric pressure = 760 Torr
1 Pa
⇐⇒ 7.5 mTorr
-7-
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
Quantity
Symbol
Value
Boltzmann constant
k
1.3807
× 10
−23
J/K
Elementary charge
e
1.6022
× 10
−19
C
Electron mass
m
9.1095
× 10
−31
kg
Proton mass
M
1.6726
× 10
−27
kg
Proton/electron mass ratio
M/m
1836.2
Planck constant
h
6.6262
× 10
−34
J-s
¯
h = h/2π
1.0546
× 10
−34
J-s
Speed of light in vacuum
c
0
2.9979
× 10
8
m/s
Permittivity of free space
0
8.8542
× 10
−12
F/m
Permeability of free space
µ
0
4π
× 10
−7
H/m
Bohr radius
a
0
= 4π
0
¯
h
2
/e
2
m
5.2918
× 10
−11
m
Atomic cross section
πa
2
0
8.7974
× 10
−21
m
2
Temperature T associated
with T = 1 V
11605 K
Energy associated with
E = 1 V
1.6022
× 10
−19
J
Avogadro number
(molecules/mol)
N
A
6.0220
× 10
23
Gas constant
R = kN
A
8.3144 J/K-mol
Atomic mass unit
1.6606
× 10
−27
kg
Standard temperature
(25
◦
C)
T
0
298.15 K
Standard pressure
(760 Torr = 1 atm)
p
–
◦
1.0133
× 10
5
Pa
Loschmidt’s number
(density at STP)
n
–
◦
2.6868
× 10
25
m
−3
Pressure of 1 Torr
133.32 Pa
Energy per mole at T
0
RT
0
2.4789 kJ/mol
calorie (cal)
4.1868 J
-7a-
PLASMA DENSITY VERSUS TEMPERATURE
-8-
RELATIVE DENSITIES AND ENERGIES
-9-
NON-EQUILIBRIUM
• Energy coupling between electrons and heavy particles is weak
Input
Electrons
Ions
Neutrals
strong
power
Walls
Walls
Walls
strong
strong
weak
weak
weak
• Electrons are not in thermal equilibrium with ions or neutrals
T
e
T
i
in plasma bulk
Bombarding
E
i
E
e
at wafer surface
• “High temperature processing at low temperatures”
1. Wafer can be near room temperature
2. Electrons produce free radicals =
⇒ chemistry
3. Electrons produce electron-ion pairs =
⇒ ion bombardment
-10-
ELEMENTARY DISCHARGE BEHAVIOR
• Consider uniform density of electrons and ions n
e
and n
i
at
time t = 0
• Warm electrons having low mass quickly drain to the wall,
setting up sheaths
• Ions accelerated to walls; ion bombarding energy E
i
= plasma-
wall potential V
p
-11-
CENTRAL PROBLEM IN DISCHARGE MODELING
• Given V
rf
(or I
rf
or P
rf
), ω, gases, pressure, flow rates, discharge
geometry (R, l, etc), then
• Find plasma densities n
e
, n
i
, temperatures T
e
, T
i
, ion bom-
barding energies
E
i
, sheath thicknesses, neutral radical densi-
ties, potentials, currents, fluxes, etc
• Learn how to design and optimize plasma reactors for various
purposes (etching, deposition, etc)
-12-
CHOOSING PLASMA PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
• How about inductive? (figure published in 1991)
-12a-
SUMMARY OF PLASMA FUNDAMENTALS
-13-
POISSON’S EQUATION
• An electric field can be generated by charges:
∇ · E =
ρ
0
or
S
¯E · dA =
Q
encl
0
S
E
Q
encl
• For slow time variations (dc, rf, but not microwaves):
E =
−∇Φ
Combining these yields Poisson’s equation:
∇
2
Φ =
−
ρ
0
• Here E = electric field (V/m), ρ = charge density (C/m
3
),
Φ = potential (V)
• In 1D:
dE
x
dx
=
ρ
0
,
E
x
=
−
dΦ
dx
yields
d
2
Φ
dx
2
=
−
ρ
0
• This field powers a capacitive discharge or the wafer bias power
of an inductive or ECR discharge
~
E
V
rf
-14-
FARADAY’S LAW
• An electric field can be generated by a time-varying magnetic
field:
∇ × E = −
∂B
∂t
or
C
E
· dl = −
∂
∂t
A
B
· dA
E
B
I
rf
• Here B = magnetic induction vector
• This field powers the coil of an inductive discharge (top power)
~
E
E
I
rf
-15-
AMPERE’S LAW
• Both conduction currents and displacement currents generate
magnetic fields:
∇ × H = J
c
+
0
∂E
∂t
= J
T
• J
c
= conduction current,
0
∂E/∂t = displacement current, J
T
= total current, H = magnetic field vector, B = µ
0
H with
µ
0
= 4π
× 10
−6
H/m
• Note the vector identity:
∇ · (∇ × H) = 0
⇒
∇ · J
T
= 0
• In 1D:
∂J
T x
(x, t)
∂x
= 0
so
J
T x
= J
T x
(t), independent of x
-16-
REVIEW OF PHASORS
• Physical voltage (or current), a real sinusoidal function of time
V (t) = V
0
cos(ωt + φ)
0
V (t)
V
0
ωt
2π
• Phasor voltage (or current), a complex number, independent
of time
˜
V = V
0
e
jφ
= V
R
+ jV
I
φ
V
I
V
R
V
0
• Using e
jφ
= cos φ + j sin φ, we find
V
R
= V
0
cos φ,
V
I
= V
0
sin φ
• Note that
V (t) = Re
˜
V e
jωt
= V
0
cos(ωt + φ)
= V
R
cos ωt
− V
I
sin ωt
• Hence
V (t)
⇐⇒ ˜
V
(given ω)
-17-
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM PROPERTIES
• Electrons generally near thermal equilibrium
Ions generally not in thermal equilibrium
• Maxwellian distribution of electrons
f
e
(v) = n
e
m
2πkT
e
3/2
exp
−
mv
2
2kT
e
where v
2
= v
2
x
+ v
2
y
+ v
2
z
f
e
(v
x
)
v
x
v
T e
=
(kT
e
/m)
1/2
• Pressure p = nkT
For neutral gas at room temperature (300 K)
n
g
(cm
−3
)
≈ 3.3 × 10
16
p(Torr)
-18-
AVERAGES OVER MAXWELLIAN DISTRIBUTION
• Average energy
1
2
mv
2
=
1
n
e
d
3
v
1
2
mv
2
f
e
(v) =
3
2
kT
e
• Average speed
¯
v
e
=
1
n
e
d
3
v vf
e
(v) =
8kT
e
πm
1/2
• Average electron flux lost to a wall
x
y
z
Γ
e
Γ
e
=
∞
−∞
dv
x
∞
−∞
dv
y
∞
0
dv
z
v
z
f
e
(v) =
1
4
n
e
¯
v
e
[m
−2
-s
−1
]
• Average kinetic energy lost per electron lost to a wall
E
e
= 2 T
e
-19-
FORCES ON PARTICLES
• For a unit volume of electrons (or ions),
mn
e
du
e
dt
= qn
e
E
− ∇p
e
− mn
e
ν
m
u
e
mass
× acceleration = electric field force +
+ pressure gradient force + friction (gas drag) force
• m = electron mass
n
e
= electron density
u
e
= electron flow velocity
q =
−e for electrons (+e for ions)
E = electric field
p
e
= n
e
kT
e
= electron pressure
ν
m
= collision frequency of electrons with neutrals
x
p
e
p
e
(x)
p
e
(x + dx)
u
e
Drag
force
Neutrals
x x + dx
∇p
e
-20-
BOLTZMANN FACTOR FOR ELECTRONS
• If electric field and pressure gradient forces almost balance:
0
≈ −en
e
E
− ∇p
e
• Let E = −∇Φ and p
e
= n
e
kT
e
:
∇Φ =
kT
e
e
∇n
e
n
e
• Put kT
e
/e = T
e
(volts) and integrate to obtain:
n
e
(r) = n
e0
e
Φ(r)/T
e
Φ
x
x
n
e
n
e0
-21-
UNDERSTANDING PLASMA BEHAVIOR
• The field equations and the force equations are coupled
Newton's
Laws
Fields,
Potentials
Charges,
Currents
Maxwell's
Equations
-22-
DEBYE LENGTH λ
De
• The characteristic length scale of a plasma
• Low voltage sheaths ∼ few Debye lengths thick
• Let’s consider how a sheath forms near a wall:
Electrons leave plasma before ions and charge wall negative
n
x
Φ
n
e
= n
i
= n
0
x
x
n
i
= n
0
n
e
n
Φ
0
Electrons
Assume electrons in thermal equilibrium and stationary ions
-23-
DEBYE LENGTH λ
De
(CONT’D)
• Newton’s laws
n
e
(x) = n
0
e
Φ/T
e
,
n
i
= n
0
• Use in Poisson’s equation
d
2
Φ
dx
2
=
−
en
0
0
1
− e
Φ/T
e
• Linearize e
Φ/T
e
≈ 1 + Φ/T
e
d
2
Φ
dx
2
=
en
0
0
T
e
Φ
• Solution is
Φ(x) = Φ
0
e
−x/λ
De
,
λ
De
=
0
T
e
en
0
1/2
• In practical units
λ
De
(cm) = 740
T
e
/n
0
,
T
e
in volts, n
0
in cm
−3
• Example
At T
e
= 1 V and n
0
= 10
10
cm
−3
, λ
De
= 7.4
× 10
−3
cm
=
⇒ Sheath is ∼ 0.15 mm thick (Very thin!)
-24-
ELECTRON PLASMA FREQUENCY ω
pe
• The fundamental timescale for a plasma
• Consider a plasma slab (no walls). Displace all electrons to the
right a small distance x
e0
, and release them:
Ions
Electrons
+
−
+
+
+
−
−
−
x
0
E
x
e
E(x)
Charge/area
Charge/area
−en
0
x
e
en
0
x
e
• Maxwell’s equations (parallel plate capacitor)
E =
en
0
x
e
(t)
0
• Newton’s laws (electron motion)
m
d
2
x
e
(t)
dt
2
=
−
e
2
n
0
0
x
e
(t)
• Solution is electron plasma oscillations
x
e
(t) = x
e0
cos ω
pe
t,
ω
pe
=
e
2
n
0
0
m
1/2
• Practical formula is f
pe
(Hz) = 9000
√
n
0
,
n
0
in cm
−3
=
⇒ microwave frequencies (>
∼ 1 GHz) for typical plasmas
-25-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION
(T
e
= 1 V, n
e
= n
i
= 10
13
m
−3
)
• Electron v
x
–x phase space at t = 0.77 µs
• Electron number N versus t
-26-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONT’D)
• Electron density n
e
(x) at t = 0.77 µs
• Electric field E(x) at t = 0.77 µs
-27-
1D SIMULATION OF SHEATH FORMATION (CONT’D)
• Potential Φ(x) at t = 0.77 µs
• Right hand potential Φ(x = l) versus t
-28-
PLASMA DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
p
• RF discharges are driven at a frequency ω
E(t) = Re ( ˜
E e
jωt
),
etc
• Define
p
from the total current in Maxwell’s equations
∇ × ˜
H = ˜
J
c
+ jω
0
˜
E
≡
jω
p
˜
E
Total current ˜
J
• Conduction current ˜
J
c
=
−en
e
˜
u
e
is mainly due to electrons
• Newton’s law (electric field and neutral drag) is
jωm˜
u
e
=
−e ˜
E
− mν
m
˜
u
e
• Solve for ˜u
e
and evaluate ˜
J
c
to obtain
p
=
0
1
−
ω
2
pe
ω(ω
− jν
m
)
• For ω ν
m
,
p
is mainly real (nearly lossless dielectric)
For ν
m
ω,
p
is mainly imaginary (very lossy dielectric)
-29-
RF FIELDS IN LOW PRESSURE DISCHARGES
• Consider mainly lossless plasma (ω ν
m
)
p
=
0
1
−
ω
2
pe
ω
2
• For almost all RF discharges, ω
pe
ω
=
⇒
p
is negative
• Typical case:
p
=
−1000
0
Sheath
Plasma
Sheath
0
p
˜
E
=
˜
J
jω
0
˜
J
jω
p
0
(continuous)
˜
E
=
˜
J
jω
0
˜
E
=
˜
J
• Electric field in plasma is 1000 × smaller than in sheaths!
• Although field in plasma is small, it sustains the plasma!
-30-
PLASMA CONDUCTIVITY σ
p
• Useful to introduce the plasma conductivity ˜
J
c
≡ σ
p
˜
E
• RF plasma conductivity
σ
p
=
e
2
n
e
m(ν
m
+ jω)
• DC plasma conductivity (ω ν
m
)
σ
dc
=
e
2
n
e
mν
m
• The plasma dielectric constant and conductivity are related by:
jω
p
= σ
p
+ jω
0
• Due to σ
p
, rf current flowing through the plasma heats electrons
(just like a resistor)
-31-
OHMIC HEATING POWER
• Time average power absorbed/volume
p
d
=
J(t) · E(t) =
1
2
Re ( ˜
J
· ˜
E
∗
)
[W/m
3
]
• Put ˜
J = (σ
p
+ jω
0
) ˜
E to find p
d
in terms of ˜
E
p
d
=
1
2
| ˜
E
|
2
σ
dc
ν
2
m
ω
2
+ ν
2
m
• Put ˜
E = ˜
J /(σ
p
+ jω
0
) to find p
d
in terms of ˜
J .
For almost all rf discharges (ω
pe
ω)
p
d
=
1
2
| ˜
J
|
2
1
σ
dc
-32-
SUMMARY OF DISCHARGE FUNDAMENTALS
-33-
ELECTRON COLLISIONS WITH ARGON
• Maxwellian electrons collide with Ar atoms (density n
g
)
dn
e
dt
= νn
e
= Kn
g
n
e
ν = collision frequency [s
−1
], K(T
e
) = rate coefficient [m
3
/s]
• Electron-Ar collision processes
e + Ar
−→ Ar
+
+ 2e
(ionization)
e + Ar
−→ e + Ar
∗
−→ e + Ar + photon
(excitation)
e + Ar
−→ e + Ar
(elastic scattering)
e
Ar
Ar
e
• Rate coefficient K(T
e
) is average of cross section σ [m
2
] for
process, over Maxwellian distribution
K(T
e
) =
σv
Maxwellian
-34-
ELECTRON-ARGON RATE COEFFICIENTS
-35-
ION COLLISIONS WITH ARGON
• Argon ions collide with Ar atoms
Ar
+
+ Ar
−→ Ar
+
+ Ar
(elastic scattering)
Ar
+
+ Ar
−→ Ar + Ar
+
(charge transfer)
Ar
Ar
Ar
+
Ar
+
Ar
Ar
Ar
+
Ar
+
• Total cross section for room temperature ions σ
i
≈ 10
−14
cm
2
• Ion-neutral mean free path
λ
i
=
1
n
g
σ
i
• Practical formula
λ
i
(cm) =
1
330 p
,
p in Torr
• Rate coefficient for ion-neutral collisions
K
i
=
¯
v
i
λ
i
with ¯
v
i
= (8kT
i
/πM )
1/2
-36-
THREE ENERGY LOSS PROCESSES
1. Collisional energy
E
c
lost per electron-ion pair created
K
iz
E
c
= K
iz
E
iz
+ K
ex
E
ex
+ K
el
(2m/M )(3T
e
/2)
=
⇒ E
c
(T
e
)
(voltage units)
E
iz
,
E
ex
, and (3m/M )T
e
are energies lost by an electron due to
an ionization, excitation, and elastic scattering collision
2. Electron kinetic energy lost to walls
E
e
= 2 T
e
3. Ion kinetic energy lost to walls is mainly due to the dc potential
¯
V
s
across the sheath
E
i
≈ ¯
V
s
• Total energy lost per electron-ion pair lost to walls
E
T
=
E
c
+
E
e
+
E
i
-37-
COLLISIONAL ENERGY LOSSES
-38-
BOHM (ION LOSS) VELOCITY u
B
Plasma Sheath
Wall
Density
n
s
u
B
• Due to formation of a “presheath”, ions arrive at the plasma-
sheath edge with directed energy kT
e
/2
1
2
M u
2
i
=
kT
e
2
• At the plasma-sheath edge (density n
s
), electron-ion pairs are
lost at the Bohm velocity
u
i
= u
B
=
kT
e
M
1/2
-39-
AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT HIGH PRESSURES
• Plasma bulk is quasi-neutral (n
e
≈ n
i
= n) and the electron
and ion loss fluxes are equal (Γ
e
≈ Γ
i
≈ Γ)
• Fick’s law
Γ =
−D
a
∇n
with ambipolar diffusion coefficient D
a
= kT
e
/M ν
i
• Density profile is sinusoidal
0
x
n
s
n
0
Γ
wall
Γ
wall
l/2
−l/2
• Loss flux to the wall is
Γ
wall
= h
l
n
0
u
B
where the edge-to-center density ratio is
h
l
≡
n
s
n
0
=
π
l
u
B
ν
i
• Applies for pressures > 100 mTorr in argon
-40-
AMBIPOLAR DIFFUSION AT LOW PRESSURES
• The diffusion coefficient is not constant
• Density profile is relatively flat in the center and falls sharply
near the sheath edge
0
x
n
s
n
0
Γ
wall
Γ
wall
l/2
−l/2
• For a cylindrical plasma of length l and radius R, loss fluxes to
axial and radial walls are
Γ
axial
= h
l
n
0
u
B
,
Γ
radial
= h
R
n
0
u
B
where the edge-to-center density ratios are
h
l
≈
0.86
(3 + l/2λ
i
)
1/2
,
h
R
≈
0.8
(4 + R/λ
i
)
1/2
• Applies for pressures < 100 mTorr in argon
-41-
ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE EQUILIBRIUM
-42-
PARTICLE BALANCE AND T
e
• Assume uniform cylindrical plasma absorbing power P
abs
R
l
Plasma
P
abs
n
e
= n
i
= n
0
• Particle balance
Production due to ionization = loss to the walls
K
iz
n
g
n
0
πR
2
l = (2πR
2
h
l
n
0
+ 2πRlh
R
n
0
)u
B
• Solve to obtain
K
iz
(T
e
)
u
B
(T
e
)
=
1
n
g
d
eff
where
d
eff
=
1
2
Rl
Rh
l
+ lh
R
is an effective plasma size
• Given n
g
and d
eff
=
⇒ electron temperature T
e
• T
e
varies over a narrow range of 2–5 volts
-43-
ELECTRON TEMPERATURE IN ARGON DISCHARGE
-44-
ION ENERGY FOR LOW VOLTAGE SHEATHS
• E
i
= energy entering sheath + energy gained traversing sheath
• Ion energy entering sheath = T
e
/2 (voltage units)
• Sheath voltage determined from particle conservation in the
sheath
Plasma
Sheath
+
−
Γ
i
Γ
i
Γ
e
¯
V
s
Insulating
wall
Density
n
s
Γ
i
= n
s
u
B
,
Γ
e
=
1
4
n
s
¯
v
e
e
− ¯
V
s
/T
e
with ¯
v
e
= (8eT
e
/πm)
1/2
• The ion and electron fluxes must balance
¯
V
s
=
T
e
2
ln
M
2πm
or ¯
V
s
≈ 4.7 T
e
for argon
• Accounting for the initial ion energy, E
i
≈ 5.2 T
e
-45-
ION ENERGY FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SHEATHS
• Large ion bombarding energies can be gained near rf-driven
electrodes embedded in the plasma
+
−
−
+
C
large
¯
V
s
¯
V
s
+
− ¯
V
s
~
˜
V
rf
~
˜
V
rf
Low voltage
sheath
∼ 5.2 T
e
Plasma
Plasma
¯
V
s
∼ 0.4 ˜
V
rf
¯
V
s
∼ 0.8 ˜
V
rf
s
• The sheath thickness s is given by the Child Law
¯
J
i
= en
s
u
B
=
4
9
0
2e
M
1/2
¯
V
3/2
s
s
2
• Estimating ion energy is not simple as it depends on the type
of discharge and the application of bias voltages
-46-
POWER BALANCE AND n
0
• Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
E
T
(T
e
) =
E
c
(T
e
)
+ 2 T
e
+ 5.2 T
e
Collisional Electron
Ion
• Power balance
Power in = power out
P
abs
= (h
l
n
0
2πR
2
+ h
R
n
0
2πRl) u
B
e
E
T
• Solve to obtain
n
0
=
P
abs
A
eff
u
B
e
E
T
where
A
eff
= 2πR
2
h
l
+ 2πRlh
R
is an effective area for particle loss
• Density n
0
is proportional to the absorbed power P
abs
• Density n
0
depends on pressure p through h
l
, h
R
, and T
e
-47-
PARTICLE AND POWER BALANCE
• Particle balance =⇒ electron temperature T
e
(independent of plasma density)
• Power balance =⇒ plasma density n
0
(once electron temperature T
e
is known)
-48-
EXAMPLE 1
• Let R = 0.15 m, l = 0.3 m, n
g
= 3.3
× 10
19
m
−3
(p = 1 mTorr
at 300 K), and P
abs
= 800 W
• Assume low voltage sheaths at all surfaces
• Find λ
i
= 0.03 m. Then h
l
≈ h
R
≈ 0.3 and d
eff
≈ 0.17 m
• From the T
e
versus n
g
d
eff
figure, T
e
≈ 3.5 V
• From the E
c
versus T
e
figure,
E
c
≈ 42 V. Adding E
e
= 2T
e
≈ 7 V
and
E
i
≈ 5.2T
e
≈ 18 V yields E
T
= 67 V
• Find u
B
≈ 2.9 × 10
3
m/s and find A
eff
≈ 0.13 m
2
• Power balance yields n
0
≈ 2.0 × 10
17
m
−3
• Ion current density J
il
= eh
l
n
0
u
B
≈ 2.9 mA/cm
2
• Ion bombarding energy E
i
≈ 18 V
-49-
EXAMPLE 2
• Apply a strong dc magnetic field along the cylinder axis
=
⇒ particle loss to radial wall is inhibited
• For no radial loss, d
eff
= l/2h
l
≈ 0.5 m
• From the T
e
versus n
g
d
eff
figure, T
e
≈ 3.3 V
• From the E
c
versus T
e
figure,
E
c
≈ 46 V. Adding E
e
= 2T
e
≈
6.6 V and
E
i
≈ 5.2T
e
≈ 17 V yields E
T
= 70 V
• Find u
B
≈ 2.8 × 10
3
m/s and find A
eff
= 2πR
2
h
l
≈ 0.043 m
2
• Power balance yields n
0
≈ 5.8 × 10
17
m
−3
• Ion current density J
il
= eh
l
n
0
u
B
≈ 7.8 mA/cm
2
• Ion bombarding energy E
i
≈ 17 V
=
⇒ Significant increase in plasma density n
0
-50-
ELECTRON HEATING MECHANISMS
• Discharges can be distinguished by electron heating mecha-
nisms
(a) Ohmic (collisional) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(b) Stochastic (collisionless) heating (capacitive, inductive discharges)
(c) Resonant wave-particle interaction heating (Electron cyclotron
resonance and helicon discharges)
• Achieving adequate electron heating is a central issue
• Although the heated electrons provide the ionization required
to sustain the discharge, the electrons tend to short out the
applied heating fields within the bulk plasma
-50a-
INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES
DESCRIPTION AND MODEL
-93-
MOTIVATION
• Independent control of plasma density and ion energy
• Simplicity of concept
• RF rather than microwave powered
• No source magnetic fields
-94-
CYLINDRICAL AND PLANAR CONFIGURATIONS
• Cylindrical coil
• Planar coil
-95-
EARLY HISTORY
• First inductive discharge by Hittorf (1884)
• Arrangement to test discharge mechanism by Lehmann (1892)
-96-
HIGH DENSITY REGIME
• Inductive coil launches electromagnetic wave into plasma
z
Coil
Plasma
E
˜
H
˜
Window
Decaying wave
δ
p
• Wave decays exponentially into plasma
˜
E = ˜
E
0
e
−z/δ
p
,
δ
p
=
c
ω
1
Im(κ
1/2
p
)
where κ
p
= plasma dielectric constant
κ
p
= 1
−
ω
2
pe
ω(ω
− jν
m
)
For typical high density, low pressure (ν
m
ω) discharge
δ
p
≈
c
ω
pe
=
m
e
2
µ
0
n
e
1/2
∼ 1–2 cm
-97-
TRANSFORMER MODEL
• For simplicity consider long cylindrical discharge
Plasma
l
R
b
z
N turn coil
˜
I
rf
˜
I
p
δ
p
• Current ˜I
rf
in
N turn coil induces current ˜I
p
in 1-turn
plasma skin
=
⇒ A transformer
-98-
PLASMA RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE
• Plasma resistance R
p
R
p
=
1
σ
dc
circumference of plasma loop
cross sectional area of loop
where
σ
dc
=
e
2
n
es
mν
m
=
⇒ R
p
=
2πR
σ
dc
lδ
p
• Plasma inductance L
p
L
p
=
magnetic flux produced by plasma current
plasma current
• Using magnetic flux = πR
2
µ
0
˜
I
p
/l
=
⇒ L
p
=
µ
0
πR
2
l
-99-
COUPLING OF PLASMA AND COIL
• Model the source as a transformer
˜
V
rf
= jωL
11
˜
I
rf
+ jωL
12
˜
I
p
˜
V
p
= jωL
21
˜
I
rf
+ jωL
22
˜
I
p
• Transformer inductances
L
11
=
magnetic flux linking coil
coil current
=
µ
0
πb
2
N
2
l
L
12
= L
21
=
magnetic flux linking plasma
coil current
=
µ
0
πR
2
N
l
L
22
= L
p
=
µ
0
πR
2
l
• Put ˜
V
p
=
−˜I
p
R
p
in transformer equations and solve for impedance
Z
s
= ˜
V
rf
/ ˜
I
rf
seen at coil terminals
Z
s
= jωL
11
+
ω
2
L
2
12
R
p
+ jωL
p
-100-
SOURCE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
• Equivalent circuit at coil terminals
Z
s
= R
s
+ jωL
s
R
s
=
N
2
2πR
σ
dc
lδ
p
L
s
=
µ
0
πR
2
N
2
l
b
2
R
2
− 1
• Power balance =⇒ ˜I
rf
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
rf
R
s
• From source impedance =⇒ V
rf
˜
V
rf
= ˜
I
rf
Z
s
-101-
EXAMPLE
• Assume plasma radius R = 10 cm, coil radius b = 15 cm, length
l = 20 cm,
N = 3 turns, gas density n
g
= 1.7
× 10
14
cm
−3
(5 mTorr argon at 300 K), ω = 85
× 10
6
s
−1
(13.56 MHz),
absorbed power P
abs
= 600 W, and low voltage sheaths
• At 5 mTorr, λ
i
≈ 0.6 cm, h
l
≈ h
R
≈ 0.19, and d
eff
≈ 17.9 cm
• Particle balance (T
e
versus n
g
d
eff
figure) yields T
e
≈ 2.6 V
• Collisional energy losses (E
c
versus T
e
figure) are
E
c
≈ 58 V
Adding
E
e
+
E
i
= 7.2 T
e
yields total energy losses
E
T
≈ 77 V
• u
B
≈ 2.5 × 10
5
cm/s and A
eff
≈ 350 cm
2
• Power balance yields n
e
≈ 5.6 × 10
11
cm
−3
and n
se
≈ 1.0 ×
10
11
cm
−3
• Use n
se
to find skin depth δ
p
≈ 1.7 cm; estimate ν
m
= K
el
n
g
(K
el
versus T
e
figure) to find ν
m
≈ 1.4 × 10
7
s
−1
• Use ν
m
and n
se
to find σ
dc
≈ 113 Ω
−1
-m
−1
• Evaluate impedance elements R
s
≈ 14.7 Ω and L
s
≈ 2.2 µH;
|Z
s
| ≈ ωL
s
≈ 190 Ω
• Power balance yields ˜I
rf
≈ 9.0A; from impedance ˜
V
rf
≈ 1720 V
-102-
PLANAR COIL DISCHARGE
• Magnetic field produced by planar coil
• RF power is deposited in ring-shaped plasma volume
Plasma
z
N turn coil
˜
I
rf
˜
I
p
δ
p
Primary
inductance
Coupling
inductance
Plasma
inductance
• As for a cylindrical discharge, there is a primary (L
11
), coupling
(L
12
= L
21
) and secondary (L
p
= L
22
) inductance
-103-
PLANAR COIL FIELDS
• A ring-shaped plasma forms because
Induced electric field =
0,
on axis
max,
at r
≈
1
2
R
wall
0,
at r = R
wall
• Measured radial variation of B
r
(and E
θ
) at three distances
below the window (5 mTorr argon, 500 W)
-104-
INDUCTIVE DISCHARGES
POWER BALANCE
-105-
RESISTANCE AT HIGH AND LOW DENSITIES
• Plasma resistance seen by the coil
R
s
= R
p
ω
2
L
2
12
R
2
p
+ ω
2
L
2
p
• High density (normal inductive operation)
R
s
≈ R
p
∝
1
σ
dc
δ
p
∝
1
√
n
e
• Low density (skin depth > plasma size)
R
s
∝ number of electrons in the heating volume ∝ n
e
R
s
n
e
∝ n
e
∝
1
√
n
e
plasma size
δ
p
∼
-106-
POWER BALANCE WITHOUT MATCHING
• Drive discharge with rf current
• Power absorbed by discharge is P
abs
=
1
2
|˜I
rf
|
2
R
s
(n
e
)
Power lost by discharge P
loss
∝ n
e
• Intersection gives operating point; let ˜I
1
< ˜
I
2
< ˜
I
3
n
e
P
loss
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
1
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
2
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
3
R
s
Power
• Inductive operation impossible for ˜I
rf
≤ ˜I
2
-107-
CAPACITIVE COUPLING OF COIL TO PLASMA
• For ˜I
rf
below the minimum current ˜
I
2
, there is only a weak
capacitive coupling of the coil to the plasma
Plasma
z
˜
I
p
+
−
˜
V
rf
coupling
Capacitive
• A small capacitive power is absorbed
=
⇒ low density capacitive discharge
n
e
P
loss
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
1
R
s
P
abs
=
1
2
˜
I
2
3
R
s
Power
Cap
Ind
Cap Mode
Ind Mode
-108-
MEASURMENTS OF ARGON ION DENSITY
• Above 100 W, discharge is inductive and n
e
∝ P
abs
• Below 100 W, a weak capacitive discharge is present
-109-
SOURCE EFFICIENCY
• The source coil has some winding resistance R
coil
• R
coil
is in series with the plasma resistance R
s
• Power transfer efficiency is
η =
R
s
R
s
+ R
coil
• High efficiency =⇒ maximum R
s
R
s
n
e
∝ n
e
∝
1
√
n
e
plasma size
δ
p
∼
• Power transfer efficiency decreases at low and high densities
• Poor power transfer at low or high densities is analogous to
poor power transfer in an ordinary transformer with an open
or shorted secondary winding
-112a-
CONCLUSIONS
• Plasma discharges are widely used for materials processing and
are indispensible for microelectronics fabrication
• The coupling of the equations for the fields and the charged
particles is the key to plasma analysis
• Neutral particles play a key role in ionization, energy loss, and
diffusion processes in discharges
• The particle and energy balance relations are the key to the
analysis of discharge equilibrium
• The particle balance determines the electron temperature; the
energy balance determines the plasma density
• A transformer model along with the particle and energy bal-
ance relations are the key to the analysis of inductive discharges
-111-