boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd

Summary Key Concepts Case Studies: Re

ﬂect and Evaluate

Applications: Applied Behavior Analysis

Strategies for Increasing Appropriate Behaviors

Strategies for Decreasing Inappropriate Behaviors

Classical Conditioning

Assumptions of Behavioral Learning Theories

Behavioral Learning Theories

Outline Learning Goals

Describe the basic assumptions of traditional behavioral learning theories.

Explain classical conditioning and its relevance to educational settings.

Operant Conditioning

Basic Tenets of the Theory

Using Consequences Effectively

Explain how reinforcement and punishment in

ﬂuence future behavior and how often each should be used to be

effective.

Explain how teachers can use consequences effectively.

Describe strategies teachers can use to increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate behaviors.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 160

10/9/08 8:42:33 AM

ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORAL
LEARNING THEORIES

How did you learn to write your name? How did you learn to raise
your hand during class? Although most psychologists and educators
might deﬁne learning as a change in either behavior or knowledge,
traditional behavioral theories have focused on learning behaviors,
with little focus on knowledge, mental processes, or memories.

As behavioral psychologists have studied how learning occurs,

their theories traditionally have fallen into one of two categories:
classical conditioning or operant conditioning. We’ll examine each of
these theories separately, but ﬁrst let’s consider their shared
assumptions about how learning occurs:

Learning must include a change in behavior. To show that

learning has occurred, traditional behaviorists assert that new
information must cause behavior to change (Watson, 1913). If one
cannot determine that behavior has changed, learning has
not occurred.

Behavior occurs due to experiences in the environment. British

philosopher John Locke (1632– 1704) stated that children are born
as blank slates who can be taught to do, or not do, any behavior
based on experiences in their environment (Locke, 1892).

Learning must include an association between a stimulus and a

response (Kimble, 2000). Stimuli are events that individuals link
or associate with certain responses. Learning by associations,
called contiguity learning, is important for learning the vast
amount of information children and adolescents are presented with.

The stimulus and the response must occur close together in time.

Remember that time is relative. Immediate consequences are
needed for young children, who view 30 minutes as an eternity. In
contrast, cross-cultural studies have found that older children and
adults are more likely to delay small rewards and wait much longer
in exchange for larger rewards (Green, Fry, & Myerson, 1994;
Rotenberg & Mayer, 1990). Although this developmental trend
implies that older children and adolescents can wait longer,
immediate feedback in educational settings is optimal. For
example, studies repeatedly ﬁnd that immediate feedback is more
effective than delayed feedback with respect to performance on
classroom quizzes and success with learning materials (Kulik &
Kulik, 1988).

Learning processes are very similar across different species.

Rats, pigeons, and humans learn in similar ways. Because
traditional behaviorists believe most learning processes are the
same across species, few behavioral studies have focused on

differences across ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status or other
issues of diversity within the human species. According to
traditional behaviorists, it does not matter whether you are Black,
White, female, or male—all humans (and all animals) learn
behaviors through similar mechanisms.

Can you think of examples of contiguity learning from your own experiences both in and outside
school?

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

We are all aware of involuntary behaviors, such as the body’s many
reﬂexes. For example, people automatically blink when an object
quickly moves toward their eyes (the ―you ﬂinched‖ game played by
children). These involuntary behaviors include two elements:

an unconditioned stimulus, the behavior or event that evokes

an automatic response (e.g., moving your hand quickly toward
someone’s face); and

module nine

behavioral learning theories

161

Contiguity Learning.
Young children learn to associate golden arches with fast food.

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 161

10/9/08 8:42:41 AM

162

cluster three

learning theories

an unconditioned response, the automatic behavior

caused by the stimulus, which can be physio logical (e.g., someone
ﬂinching when your hand approaches) or emotional (e.g., fear).
In short, we don’t learn to connect an unconditioned stimulus with
an unconditioned response; rather, we inherit these involuntary
behaviors.
Classical conditioning, or classical learning, is based on the
pairing of these involuntary behaviors with events that do not evoke
an automatic response. These events are called neutral stimuli and

include shapes, behaviors, sounds, and smells. In classical
conditioning, learning will occur when a neutral stimulus is paired
repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, as in the famous study by
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936), a physiologist who was
studying the digestive systems of dogs. (Note that he was not a
psychologist.) In Pavlov’s study (Pavlov 1927/1960), his researchers
would release the alarm on the doors to the dogs’ cages, sounding a
bell, and then bring food to the dogs. After they had done this
repeatedly, Pavlov noticed that the dogs started to produce saliva
when the bell sounded rather than when the food was presented.

Classical conditioning states that an unconditioned stimulus

(in this case, the presentation of food) and its unconditioned response
(the dogs salivating automatically) can be paired with a previously
neutral stimulus (a bell sounding). As a result, the previously neutral
stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, or a learned stimulus that
evokes a conditioned response, or a learned response. The dogs
produced saliva (conditioned response) when they heard the bell
(conditioned stimulus), not when presented with food. According to
the ﬁrst assumption we discussed, the change in behavior showed that
learning had occurred.

While Pavlov’s study illustrates a physical response, classical

conditioning also demonstrates how emotions, particularly fear, can
be learned (Watson & Rayner, 1920). In one study, researchers began
by placing an infant, Little Albert, in the middle of a table and then
made a loud noise behind him (unconditioned stimulus, UCS),
automatically producing a startled fear response (unconditioned
response, UCR). A neutral stimulus—a white rat—was paired
repeatedly with the loud noise. After several pairings, Little Albert
learned to be afraid of the white rat and would cry and attempt to
crawl away when the white rat appeared, even in the absence of the
loud noise. The once neutral stimulus, the white rat, became a
conditioned stimulus (CS), and the fear of the white rat became a
conditioned response (CR), as depicted in Figure 9.1. Again, the
change in behavior conﬁrmed that learning had occurred. (It is
important to note that current ethical guidelines would not allow
similar studies to be conducted.)

Once learning—or a change in behavior—has occurred, the

behavior can be expanded on, altered, or eliminated. These additional
learning opportunities are referred to by traditional behavioral
theorists as generalization, discrimination, and extinction,
respectively.

Generalization: Conditioned learning can be expanded beyond a

speciﬁc stimulus to other, similar stimuli. After conditioning with
the white rat, Little Albert was presented with a white rabbit and
more quickly learned to fear the rabbit as well—he generalized the
meaning of ―white rat‖ to the white rabbit.

Discrimination: Species can learn to differentiate between similar

but different stimuli. For example, Little Albert could have been
taught to discriminate between white rabbits and white rats by being
presented with white rabbits without the loud noise. Little Albert
would have learned to distinguish, or discriminate, between the
animals.

Extinction: If the conditioned stimulus is paired repeatedly

without the unconditioned stimulus, the previously learned behavior
will disappear or become extinct. Consider the example of Pavlov’s
dogs. Researchers could have presented the bell repeatedly without
food. Eventually, the dogs

Behavioral Perspective. Behaviorists assume that learning pro cesses are
very similar between animals and humans.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 162

10/9/08 8:42:47 AM

module nine

behavioral learning theories

163

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

Before conditioning Conditioning After conditioning

Figure 9.1: Watson

’s Classical Conditioning of Little Albert. A once neutral stimulus, the white rat, became a conditioned

stimulus (CS). Fear of the white rat became a conditioned response (CR).

UCS

UCR

Neutral stimulus

No response

No reaction

Cymbals crashing

Startled fear response

White rat

Neutral stimulus

White rat White rat

UCS CR

UCR

Cymbals crashing

Startled fear response Startled fear response

would no longer respond to the bell by producing saliva. The conditioned response would have become extinct.
Although classical conditioning is widely used in modern psychology in the areas of cognitive science and

neuroscience, there are fewer examples of how it may be applied in classroom settings (Rescorla, 1988). However,
classical conditioning can affect students’ emotional states regarding teachers, schools, and academic subjects.
(Remember that emotions are automatic responses.) For example, a child who has been harassed and victimized on
the playground by other children may begin to associate recess with fear. High school students may associate a
teacher who is critical and harsh with feelings of humiliation or may associate the subject matter with fear and
inferiority (e.g., math anxiety). In contrast, students may associate a teacher who is positive and supportive with
feelings of pride and may learn to associate the subject matter with pleasure and happiness. Many other examples,
including test anxiety and school phobia, illustrate how speciﬁc situations, people, and events often come to be
associated with certain emotions.

Can you think of examples from your educational experiences that might have led to feelings of anxiety or
fear about a particular subject? What might have been the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus,
and the conditioned response in those experiences?

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning, like classical conditioning, includes a pairing of events. However, operant conditioning does
not depend on involuntary behaviors such as physiological responses or emotional states. Rather, it includes new,
voluntary behaviors such as raising your hand in class.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 163

10/9/08 8:42:49 AM

164

cluster three

learning theories

Basic Tenets of the Theory

Operant conditioning originated with Edward Thorndike
(1874–1949), who, like many behaviorists, was conducting
experiments with animals. The results of his experiments led to the
law of effect, which states that behaviors associated with good
consequences (satisﬁers) are more likely to occur again in the future,
whereas behaviors associated with bad consequences (annoyers) are
less likely to occur again (Thorndike, 1898). For example, when a
child is praised for class participation (good consequence), he or she
is more likely to participate in the future. In contrast, when a child is
laughed at or humiliated by the teacher or by other students when he
or she attempts to participate in class (bad consequence), that child is
less likely to participate in the future. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
expanded on these ideas to form the ABCs of learning (Skinner,
1953). The antecedent (A) occurs prior to the behavior (B) and leads
to the consequence (C) of the behavior. Remember, from the
assumptions stated earlier, that the antecedent, behavior, and
consequence must occur close together in time.

Antecedents can be cues or prompts. Cues refer to nonverbal

events that signal that a behavior is expected. For example, many
kindergarten teachers use the nonverbal cue of shutting off the lights
(A) to signal children to quiet down and return to their seats (B).
Similarly, many middle schools and almost all high schools use a bell
(A) to cue students that a new class period has begun. Teachers’
nonverbal cues are very important for maintaining classroom
management and increasing the level of student performance
(Woolfolk & Brooks, 1985). Prompts typically are verbal reminders
that accompany a cue. The ﬁrst few times the kindergarten teacher
turns off the lights, he or she also says ―Please quietly sit down in
your seats.‖ Prompts may be particularly effective in teaching
students with special needs. For example, studies have found that
prompts can be used effectively to teach children with autism how to
initiate conversations during play activities (Shabani et al., 2002;
Taylor & Levin, 1998).

The consequence (C) of the behavior can either increase or

decrease the behavior in the future. Reinforcement is a consequence
of a behavior that increases the future occurrence of that behavior.
When a teacher praises a student for participating in class and the
student considers the praise good, he or she is likely to participate
again—in order to receive more praise. Punishment is a consequence
of a behavior that decreases the future occurrence of that behavior.
Most children, after participating in class, would consider being
laughed at and humiliated by their teacher and peers a bad thing,
making them less interested in participating in the future—in order to
avoid such consequences.

Reinforcement and punishment can occur by adding (+) something

desirable or by taking away (–) something undesirable, as
summarized in Table 9.1.

Positive reinforcement is adding (+) something that is desired by

the individual, such as praise, candy, or wanted attention.

Negative reinforcement is taking away (–) something undesired by

the individual, such as an annoying noise, an unpleasant chore, or
unwanted attention.

Positive punishment, also called presentation punishment, is

adding (+) or presenting something undesired by the individual, such
as physical pain, unpleasant chores, or unwanted attention.

Negative punishment, also called removal punishment, is taking

away (–) something desired by an individual, such as toys, free time,
or wanted attention.

Regardless of whether the reinforcement is positive or negative,
reinforcement increases the behavior, whereas both positive and
negative punishments decrease the behavior.

When a behavior is ﬁrst being developed, consequences are needed

every time the behavior occurs in order for individuals to make the
association and perform the behavior consistently—a continuous
schedule. After the behavior has been well established, reinforcement
is needed only periodically to continue supporting the behavior

(Skinner, 1954). Reinforcement can occur on an intermittent
schedule. Intermittent reinforcement schedules, shown in Table 9.2,
may be:

ratio schedules, based on the number of times a behavior occurs,

such as every third time the child raises his or her hand;

interval schedules, based on the time elapsed after the behavior

has occurred, such as providing praise for every ﬁve minutes a
student is quietly working on an assignment;

ﬁ xed schedules, occurring exactly every third time the behavior

occurs (ﬁxed ratio) or exactly every ﬁve minutes (ﬁxed interval),
such that individuals know when to expect the reinforcement; or

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 164

10/9/08 8:42:50 AM

module nine

behavioral learning theories

165

TA B L E 9 .1

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Negative reinforcement and punishment are often confused. It may help you to remember that reinforcement is always associated
with increases in behaviors, and punishment always involves decreasing or suppressing behavior.

Negative reinforcement
Example: Not needing to wash the dishes

Increasing Behavior

Positive reinforcement

Example: More time to socialize

Stimulus presented

Stimulus removed or withheld

Presentation punishment

Example: Saturday detention

Removal punishment

Example: Not being allowed to play video games

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

Decreasing Behavior

variable schedules, providing reinforcement every third time (variable ratio) or every ﬁve minutes

(variable interval) on average but varying across time. Variable schedules typically are more effective and
efﬁcient because students are unaware of exactly when the reinforcement will be provided.

Although intermittent schedules work well for reinforcement, punishment needs to occur after every single
infraction in order to work effectively. In other words, punishment requires a continuous schedule. Let’s examine
more closely the effective use of consequences.

Examples of Intermittent Schedules Fixed Variable

TA B L E 9 . 2

Extra credit for class participation is given on random days throughout the semester.

Interval Every Friday, popcorn is given to all students who meet their weekly reading goal.

Ratio Feedback on book reports is given for every third book report completed.

Slot machines pay out based on the number of pulls, but you don

’t know which pull will be the big winner.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 165

10/9/08 8:42:50 AM

166

cluster three

learning theories

Using Consequences Effectively

Here we present several tips for using consequences effectively,
summarized in Table 9.3. Many apply similarly to both
reinforcement and punishment, but we’ll also address some
important differences in the use of reinforcement and punishment.

Tip 1: Know the developmental level of the individual. To use

consequences effectively, teachers should understand what typically
is considered good and bad by students in a particular developmental
period. Stickers and smiley faces may be desired consequences for
early childhood and elementary students, but they will not be as
effective for inﬂuencing the behavior of middle school and high
school students, who may instead desire free time to talk with
friends.

Tip 2: Know the individual’s likes and dislikes. In order to

provide reinforcement and punishment, teachers must know what
individual students consider to be positive and negative. One student
may love chocolate and another may not, so chocolate might work
great as positive reinforcement for one student’s behavior but not
another’s. Individuals choose different reinforcements due to
preference and are more likely to increase their behavior for a highly
preferred reinforcement than for other reinforcements (Bowman,
Piazza, Fisher, Hagopian, & Kogan, 1997; Fischer & Mazur, 1997).
Teachers must ﬁnd out what is preferred by the students in their
classrooms. Some examples of speciﬁc classroom strategies based
on student preferences are described in Table 9.4.

Tip 3: Understand the function of

attention. Just as students have individual preferences for tangible
rewards, attention given to students can be a powerful consequence,
as either reinforcement or punishment (Maag, 2001). For example, a
teacher who repeatedly asks a student to sit down and be quiet may
actually be increasing the behavior by providing the student with
attention for the misbehavior—positive reinforcement. Peers can also
reinforce inappropriate behaviors by providing attention, such as
looking and laughing at disruptive behaviors (Flood, Wilder, Flood,
& Masuda, 2002). In contrast, a teacher who repeatedly praises a
student publicly for appropriate behavior may be decreasing the
likelihood of that behavior because the student does not want the
attention—positive punishment. By increasing or decreasing the
amount of attention given, the teacher can alter problem behavior in
the classroom (McComas, Thompson, & Johnson, 2003). Teachers
must assess whether the attention they give to problem behavior is
increasing or decreasing that behavior for each individual student and
alter the amount of teacher and peer attention accordingly.

Tip 4: Know when and how often to provide consequences. As we

discussed earlier, behavior and consequence must occur close
together in time. The sticker given to a preschooler one day after the
child has sat quietly for a story is no longer associated with the
child’s behavior the day before due to the elapsed time. Also,
remember that scheduling how often to provide a consequence differs
for reinforcement and punishment. Intermittent reinforcement can be
as effective as continuous reinforcement in children and adolescents
(Bowman et al., 1997; Freeland & Noell, 1999). Although teachers
can use either schedule with similar results, an intermittent schedule
of reinforcement is more efﬁcient because it does not require teachers
to ―catch‖ every instance of positive behavior. In contrast, teachers do
need to catch every instance of misbehavior if punishment is to be
effective. Students who ―get away‖ with a negative behavior learn
that punishment can be avoided.

Tip 5: Use reinforcement more than punishment. Because it is

difﬁcult to use punishment on a continuous schedule, punishment is
considered less effective than reinforcement. Also, punishment alone
tends to teach a student only what not to do rather than a more
appropriate behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 1999). Given these
limitations of punishment, psychologists tend to agree that teachers
should focus on using reinforcement to increase wanted behaviors
and focus less on punishing unwanted behaviors (Cheyne & Walters,
1970; Maag, 2001).

Historically, teachers were more likely to use disapproval

(punishment) than approval (reinforcement) in the classroom. Many
teachers may learn to use punishment. For example, the ﬁrst time a
teacher yells, students typically react with immediate silence and
obedience; hence, the teacher experiences positive reinforcement for
her yelling. Yet the students eventually adjust to the yelling, and the
punishment becomes less effective. More recent studies have found
that teachers use approval more often than disapproval. Although this
signals an important shift in the behaviors of teachers,

Variable Schedules.
Slot machines are based on variable schedules of reinforcement, which are
very effective for increasing behavior.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 166

10/9/08 8:42:52 AM

module nine

behavioral learning theories

167

TA B L E 9 . 3

Summary of Tips for Using Consequences Effectively Tip Example

Tip 2 Know the individual

’s likes and dislikes.

Tip 4 Know when and how often to provide consequences.

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

Tip 1 Know the developmental level of the individual.

Younger children may like pencils, candy, and stickers. Older children and adolescents may prefer time to socialize
with friends or listen to music.
Although we assume most young children will like candy and stickers, some won

’t. Know what is desirable for

particular students.

Tip 3 Understand the function of attention.

Some students will want the teacher

’s attention (praise and criticism alike), whereas other children may not want

attention or may want only positive attention, such as praise.
Reinforcement can be given on an intermittent schedule without needing to catch every appropriate behavior.
Punishment must be given on a continuous schedule by catching every infraction.

Tip 5 Use reinforcement more than punishment.

Tip 6 Some punishments should not be used.

Because reinforcement is more ef

ﬁcient on an intermittent schedule, reinforcement should be used often and

punishment sparingly.
Physical or psychological punishment, extra homework, withdrawal of recess, and out-of-school suspensions all are
ineffective punishments.

research also indicates that approval is used primarily for academic learning and rarely to increase appropriate social
behavior. Teachers would beneﬁt from using reinforcement for appropriate classroom behavior in order to increase
on-task time for academic learning (see Beaman & Wheldall, 2000, for a review of approval and disapproval).

Tip 6: Some punishments should not be used. Several types of punishment are considered ineffective. First we

need to deﬁne what we mean by effective and ineffective punishment. If effective punishment means simply getting
the individual to stop engaging in some behavior, then most punishments work extremely well when given on a
continuous schedule. However, most scholars think that effective punishment should not only stop the unwanted
behavior but also lead to an understanding of why a behavior should not be used, enabling individuals to generalize
to other, similar behaviors (Pﬁffner & Barkely, 1998). In addition, effectiveness usually implies that the reasons for
using the punishment outweigh its negative effects (Alberto & Troutman, 1999). The following ﬁve types of
punishment do not meet this requirement of effectiveness:
1. Physical punishment. Physical punishment typically is viewed as spanking, but it also includes washing

someone’s mouth out with soap or making someone remain in a physically uncomfortable environment (e.g.,
extremely cold, extremely hot). One negative effect of physical punishment is that it teaches individuals that it is
acceptable for older or more powerful individuals to hit, push, or

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 167

10/9/08 8:42:54 AM

168

cluster three

learning theories

Classroom Strategies Based on Students

’ Likes and Dislikes Strategy

Description Note of caution

TA B L E 9 . 4

Teachers must be able to remember the goals and rewards speci

ﬁed for numerous students.

Individual students who struggle in the subject area or who have behavioral dif

ﬁculties can be singled out as holding

back the whole class.

Contingency contract

Teachers write a contract for each student specifying goals for behaviors that will be reinforced and what
reinforcement will be given based on student preferences. Students can be involved in setting the goals and
determining the rewards.

Token economy Students are given a token for appropriate classroom behavior or good academic work.

The tokens are exchanged periodically for toys or prizes that children can choose based on

their own preferences.

Managing this complex system of tokens and exchanges is very time consuming.

Group consequences
Reinforcement is based on the behavior or academic achievement of the class as a whole. The students may help
choose the class reward.

slap others. Although empirical data do not support the use of physical punishment, many educators still believe
that it is a necessary evil, and changing their belief has proved difﬁcult (Robinson, Funk, Beth, & Bush, 2005).
Speciﬁcally, teachers in Botswana, Africa, have been found to strongly believe that physical punishment (e.g.,
caning) is inherent in their culture (Tafa, 2002).
2. Psychological punishment: Psychological punishment can include public humiliation, such as a teacher
ridiculing a student in front of the class, and may lead to loss of self-esteem (Davis & Thomas, 1989). The
negative impact of this type of punishment on an individual’s long-term well-being far outweighs the potential
effect of decreasing an unwanted behavior. Hence, scholars agree that psychological punishment should not be
used (Walker, Shea, & Bauer, 2004).

3. Extra homework. By giving additional homework as a punishment, teachers send the message that homework is

undesirable. Teachers should be sending the message that learning is important, essential, and positive—not
negative, bad, or unwanted (Corno, 1996).

4. Withdrawal of recess. Recess may be necessary in order for children to focus attention and behave appropriately,

in addition to the usefulness of physical activity for health purposes (DeAngelis, 2004; Rich, 2004). Attention
appears to decrease after long periods of conﬁnement in classrooms and to improve following recess (Pellegrini,
Huberty, & Jones, 1995). In particular, one study examining the importance of recess for children with ADHD
found inappropriate behaviors more likely to occur on days when the children did not have recess (Ridgway,
Northup, Pellegrin, LaRue, & Hightshoe, 2003). In addition to increasing attention and decreasing inappropriate
behaviors, activities typically engaged in by students during recess help foster cognitive development and social
skills (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005). The positive effects of recess far outweigh any beneﬁt of using the elimination
of recess as a form of punishment.

5. Out-of-school suspensions. In most cases, students who are given out-of-school suspensions do not view missing

school as a punishment. Most of those students will see the suspension as negative reinforcement—taking away
something undesired (attending school). In addition, empirical data suggest that out-of-school suspensions are
given disproportionately to children from lower-socioeconomic homes and minority ethnic groups, and to boys
more than girls (Mendez, Knoff,

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 168

10/9/08 8:42:55 AM

& Ferron, 2002; Nichols, Ludwin, & Iadicola, 1999). An
alternative approach is in-school suspensions that can be used to
more closely supervise students and to provide assistance for their
academic struggles (Gootman, 1998; Huff, 1988). However,
in-school suspensions also may serve as a negative
reinforcement—as some students may misbehave because they do
not want to be in class. In addition, teachers and administrators
must be careful not to give in-school suspensions
disproportionately to lower-SES students, ethnic minority
students, or boys.

Think of some ways you might use positive and negative
reinforcement in a classroom. What are some things that
students would consider desirable or undesirable to have taken
away? (Remember, don

’t assign additional academic work—you

don

’t want to imply that you consider it bad.)

APPLICATIONS:

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

We’ve discussed many examples regarding the use of operant
conditioning in classroom settings. However, teachers can use
speciﬁc strategies based on operant conditioning to inﬂuence
behaviors in their classrooms. These speciﬁc strategies typically are
referred to as applied behavior analysis or behavior modiﬁcation.
Many of these strategies focus on increasing appropriate behaviors,
while others focus on decreasing inappropriate behaviors. Let’s
examine some of these strategies more closely.

Strategies for Increasing Appropriate Behaviors

Premack principle: Using the Premack principle (Premack, 1959,

1965), a teacher may increase one behavior of students by providing
an activity as reinforcement (e.g., playing a game, socializing with
friends, drawing) rather than giving tangible rewards (e.g., stickers,
smiley faces). Early studies found the Premack principle extremely
effective for teaching young children (3-year-olds) to sit quietly and
look at the teacher by using free time as reinforcement (Homme,
DeBaga, Devine, Steinhorst, & Rickert, 1963). The principle applies
to older students as well. Middle school or high school students who
complete an assignment early could use the rest of the class period to
listen to music on an iPod or talk quietly with their friends.

Shaping: Shaping is used when a behavior is not currently being

displayed and therefore cannot be reinforced, such as when a student
never brings a pencil and paper to class. The teacher does not have
the opportunity to reinforce the behavior because it doesn’t occur.
Shaping involves reinforcing small steps that move toward the
behavior until the entire behavior is displayed (Skinner, 1953, 1954).

Teachers can use shaping for both academic learning and

classroom behavior. For a child who struggles with learning to read,

teachers can shape behavior by ﬁrst praising the student for attempts
to sound out a difﬁcult or an unfamiliar word, then for each time the
child correctly sounds out words, then for increased reading ﬂuency,
and ﬁnally for answering comprehension questions. In middle school
or high school classrooms, class participation can be shaped by
reinforcing any effort at participation by students, such as making eye
contact, raising their hand, or providing an answer, even if it is
incorrect (Hodge & Nelson, 1991).

Reinforcing incompatible behaviors: A student cannot be both

sitting down and running around the classroom, because these
behaviors are incompatible. In this strategy, teachers use
reinforcement to increase the appropriate behavior (e.g., working on
the assignment) while decreasing the behavior it is incompatible with
(e.g., passing notes). While this strategy is effective for a number of
behaviors, it must be used correctly, with consistent and frequent
reinforcement of the appropriate behavior, so students do not return to
the original, inappropriate behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 1999).

Praise-and-ignore: Like the strategy of reinforcing incompatible

behaviors, the praise-and-ignore strategy suggests that teachers ignore
inappropriate behaviors displayed by an individual while praising

module nine

behavioral learning theories

169

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

A Necessary Break.
Recess provides positive outcomes, such as increased attention. The
withdrawal of recess should not be used as a punishment.

Operant conditioning in classroom settings: See page 163.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 169

10/9/08 8:42:56 AM

170

cluster three

learning theories

the appropriate behaviors of others.
For example, the teacher may ignore a student who blurts out the
answer to a question while praising the other students for raising
their hands and being patient. Several early studies found this
technique to be very effective for increasing appropriate
behaviors (Becker, Madsen, Arnold, & Thomas, 1967; Madsen,
Becker, &

Thomas, 1968). Remember, however, that certain students may
consider public    praise    a    positive    reinforcement,    while    others
may    consider it    a    positive    punishment.    In    addition, some
behaviors cannot be ignored,    such    as    physically    harming others
or    destroying    property.    Ignoring such behaviors would be unsafe
and unethical.

Positive practice: In using

positive practice, the teacher has a student perform the right or
appropriate behavior (Kazdin, 2001). Students may write words they
misspelled to practice the correct way to spell them. Teachers also can
have students who run down the hallway return to the end of the hall
and practice walking, decreasing the likelihood that the student will
run in the hallway again and increasing the likelihood that the student
will walk.

Strategies for Decreasing Inappropriate Behaviors

Satiation: In this strategy, the teacher asks the student to perform

the negative or inappropriate behavior repeatedly, until it is no longer
rewarding. Satiation diminishes the desirability of an inappro priate
behavior by requiring the student to perform it over and over
(Krumboltz & Krumboltz, 1972). For example, a student caught
throwing spitballs is required to spend the entire class period creating
those balls and spitting them at a speciﬁed target. At ﬁrst, the other
students may reinforce the behavior with their laughing and attention
to the student (as they probably have done in the past), but eventually
the spitball making and spitball watching behaviors will become
satiated and no longer fun, entertaining, or desirable. The trick is to
make sure that everyone has had enough. Don’t give up too quickly.
When the student appears bored with the behavior, let it go on a bit
longer. Satiation should be used only when the behavior is not
seriously harmful to the individual (Krumboltz & Krumboltz, 1972).
In other words, do not use satiation with behaviors that may result in
harm, such as smoking or lighting matches.

Satiation also can occur unintentionally, making a particular

reinforcement no longer effective. Suppose, for example, a high
school teacher reinforces students’ completion of their homework
with class time for talking and socializing. If other teachers begin to
use the same reinforcement strategy in their classrooms, the
importance and desirability of social time may be reduced. So
teachers should continually reevaluate the effectiveness of the
reinforcement strategies they use and alter them when the original
reinforcement is satiated or no longer desirable enough to effect a
change in behavior.

Extinction: Similar to its use in classical conditioning, extinction

means that the behavior ceases or is eliminated. However, according
to operant conditioning, extinction occurs because reinforcement no
longer is given for that behavior (Skinner, 1953). Extinction can be
useful for addressing a number of inappropriate behaviors (for a
review, see Alberto & Troutman, 1999). For example, suppose a
teacher stops giving a disapproving look to a student who continually
speaks out of turn. The teacher is eliminating the positive
reinforcement (attention), and the inappropriate behavior (speaking
out of turn) should decrease or cease altogether. Like satiation,

however, extinction should be used only when the undesired behavior
can easily be ignored and is not harmful or dangerous, such as
aggression (Krumboltz & Krumboltz, 1972).

A word of caution on using extinction: When a teacher withdraws

reinforcement that has been given on an intermittent schedule, the
student is likely to display an extinction burst—an initial in-

Premack Principle.
Reinforcement can include preferred activities such as listening to music or
talking with friends.

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 170

10/9/08 8:42:58 AM

module nine

behavioral learning theories

171

crease in behavior due to the withdrawal of reinforcement. Consider
the student who continually speaks out of turn. The teacher has been
providing the positive reinforcement of attention (a disapproving
look) to the student’s unwanted behavior (talking out of turn). When
the teacher eliminates the reinforcement, the student likely will
increase the unwanted behavior in hopes that the teacher will ―give
in‖ and again provide the previous reinforcement. Over time, the
student will learn that talking out of turn will no longer gain the
teacher’s attention, and the behavior will decrease. Individuals are
less likely to display an extinction burst when extinction is used in
conjunction with other behavioral methods, such as reinforcing the
appropriate behavior (Lerman & Iwata, 1995).

Overcorrection: Overcorrection includes making restitution for

inappropriate behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 1999). A student who
writes on a desk in the classroom may be asked to remove the
markings not only from that desk but from all the other desks in the
classroom—overcorrecting for his or her own behavior.

Reprimand: Reprimands are verbal criticisms of behavior

intended to be positive punishment. When teachers confront a student
in class for an inappropriate behavior, they are providing attention.
Some students will ﬁnd this attention desirable, because they enjoy
being in the spotlight, while other students will ﬁnd it undesirable.
Teachers must assess whether their reprimands (attention) are
increasing or decreasing the behavior. When giving a verbal
reprimand, teachers should make eye contact with the student and
should stand close to the student rather than several feet away. The
quiet, private approach allows the teacher to point out the behavior
without providing the spotlight effect (O’Leary, Kaufman, Kass, &
Drabman, 1970; Van Houten, Nau, MacKenzie-Keating, Sameoto, &
Colavecchia, 1982).

Response cost: The concept of response cost is illustrated by the

substance abuse policies of many athletic programs. Student athletes
who use drugs or alcohol face the response cost of being suspended
for a certain number of games or banned from the team. Response
cost, a type of negative punishment, always involves taking away
something the individual desires. For adolescents, the cost may be
social time with peers, such as not being allowed to eat lunch in the

cafeteria with friends or not being able to attend the class ﬁeld trip.
Response cost interventions effectively decrease disruptive behavior
and tend to have lasting effects (Sullivan & O’Leary, 1990). One
study of children with ADHD found that losing free time as a
response cost was more effective in increasing on-task behavior and
academic learning than was the use of the prescription medicine
Ritalin (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). The effectiveness of this
strategy may be one reason why teachers prefer this type of
punishment to others (McGoey & DuPaul, 2000). The key in using
response cost is to determine— both at the developmental level and at
the individual level—what is desired and to consistently take that
away following inappropriate behavior.

Social isolation (time-out): The time-out strategy includes

removing an individual from one setting, where reinforcement is
given, to another setting, where reinforcement is denied (Walker et
al., 2004). In the best-known form of time-out, the student either is
moved to an empty, uninteresting room or is removed from an
activity to sit alone. When implementing time-out, teachers should
consider these guidelines for using it effectively:

Time-out should be used only when other strategies have failed

and after careful consideration of time and age guidelines (Lentz,
1988). The duration of the time-out should not exceed one minute
per year of age and should not be used with children younger than
age 2. Hence, 5-year-olds should not be in time-out longer than
ﬁve minutes. The use of a timer will increase the consistency and
fairness of the strategy and serve to alert both teacher and student
to the duration (Walker et al., 2004).

Time-out is effective only if reinforcement is not present and the

student desires to be with others in the classroom. Children who
prefer to be alone and do not want attention from others may view
removal from the classroom as desirable, making it a negative
reinforcement (Walker et al., 2004). Also, in child-care centers and
preschools, time-out may be ineffective because the teacher is not
able to place the child in a separate room away from other
children. So the child may draw attention from other children or
from the teacher if he or she is being supervised by the teacher. In
such cases, the attention associated with the time-out actually may
be a positive reinforcement rather than a punishment.

Think about the grade level you want to teach. How could you
use the Premack principle and response cost with this group of
students? Think of speci

ﬁc examples.

Module 9 :

Behavioral

Learning

Theories

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 171

10/9/08 8:43:00 AM

172

key cnocepts

Summary

Describe the basic assumptions of traditional behavioral    learning    theories. Learning    processes
are    very similar across species and include an association between a stimulus and a response that
occur close together in time. The association between stimulus and response results in a behavioral
change, which indicates that learning has occurred.
Explain classical conditioning and its relevance to educational settings. Classical conditioning is the
pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus, resulting    in    learning    by    association.
Classical    conditioning provides an explanation for why some children may    experience    anxiety    or
fears    related    to    school. Emotions

—which are unconscious, involuntary responses—can be linked to

important aspects of educational settings, such as particular teachers, a certain subject, or school more
generally.
Explain how reinforcement and punishment in

ﬂuence future behavior and how often each should

be used to be effective. Reinforcement following a behavior will increase the likelihood that the behavior
will occur again. When a behavior is

ﬁrst being developed, reinforcement must be given continuously.

Once the behavior is established, only intermittent reinforcement is needed to maintain the
behavior. Punishment following a behavior will decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
For punishment to eliminate a behavior and keep the behavior from occurring in the future, every instance
of the behavior must be followed by the punishment.
Explain how teachers can use consequences effectively. Teachers must understand how
developmental level and individual preference in

ﬂuence the use of reinforcement and punishment—in

particular, the preference for attention from the teacher. Reinforcement should be given more often than
punishment yet can be used on an intermittent schedule. Some punishments should not be used, and all
others should be used consistently and continuously to be effective.
Describe strategies teachers can use to increase appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate behaviors. A number of strategies can be used to increase appropriate    behaviors.    The
Premack    principle    focuses    on using activities for reinforcement, and shaping uses reinforcement of
small steps toward a goal behavior. Reinforcing incompatible behaviors and praise-and-ignore strategies
focus on reinforcing appropriate behaviors and    ignoring    other    behaviors.    Positive    practice
increases appropriate behaviors by having students practice the appropriate behaviors and providing
reinforcement. Strategies to decrease inappropriate behaviors are    also    available.    Satiation,
extinction,    overcorrection, and social isolation eliminate previous reinforcement    of    inappropriate
behaviors    in    various    ways. Rep rimands, or verbal criticism, are a speci

ﬁc case of positive

punishment. Response cost, a speci

ﬁc case of negative punishment, involves taking away

something desired by the student following an inappropriate behavior.

Key Concepts

conditioned response conditioned stimulus contiguity learning continuous schedule cues discrimination extinction

generalization intermittent schedule

law of effect learning neutral stimuli overcorrection positive practice praise-and-ignore Premack principle prompts

punishment

reinforcement reinforcing incompatible behaviors reprimand response cost satiation shaping social isolation (time-out)

unconditioned response unconditioned stimulus

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 172

10/9/08 8:43:01 AM

Case Studies:

Refl ect and Evaluate

Early Childhood:

“Pinch”

These questions refer to the case study on page 152.
1. Why didn

’t the verbal reprimands of Rana and Amber deter Reagan from pinching others? Why was

Reagan so eager to admit to her behavior?

2. Why was providing the sticker for reinforcement at the end of the day ineffective in decreasing

Reagan

’s inappropriate pinching behavior? What could have been

done differently to increase the effectiveness of the sticker
strategy?

3. It may be dif

ﬁcult for Rana and Amber to continue to provide

Reagan with so much praise for keeping her hands to herself. How
might they change this strategy over time?

4. Could shaping be used to increase Emily

’s behavior during art or Reagan’s behavior during circle

time?

If so, explain how.
5. What techniques for increasing appropriate behavior and for
decreasing inappropriate behavior were used in the preschool
classroom?

Elementary School:

“Silly Students”

These questions refer to the case study on page 154.

1. What strategies were originally used by Aidan with the three students who were being disruptive?

According to operant conditioning, why didn

’t those strategies work

well for decreasing their disruptive behavior?
2. Aidan focused on punishment as a behavioral strategy,
whereas the other fourth-grade teachers suggested a focus on
reinforcement. Explain why this shift in focus toward reinforcement
most likely increased appropriate behavior.
3. Although taking away recess time may have decreased the
students

’ disruptive behaviors, why is this a poor option?

4. Providing students with three minutes of

“free time” to talk after

each subject will decrease the time available for Aidan to present
lessons and/or decrease the time available for students to
complete work. How might Aidan change the three-minute reward
over time?
5. Do you think the same reinforcement would have been equally
effective with younger and older children? Why or why not?

Middle School:

“Study Hall”

These questions refer to the case study on page 156.

1. What types of reinforcement could be included in the English,
mathematics, and study hall periods to increase homework
completion?
2. How might the same reinforcements have different outcomes
for different students? How might these reinforcements be different
than rewards used with elementary students?

3. How was the Premack principle used with Jamie?

4. How is the importance of receiving attention from the teacher
illustrated in this case? How might attention be used as a reinforcer
within the English and mathematics class periods to enhance
performance?

5. What other strategies could be used to increase homework productivity for Jamie? For Jasamine?

How might the strategies be different for these two students, and why?

case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

173

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 173

10/9/08 8:43:04 AM

174

case studies: re

ﬂect and evaluate

High School:

“Bending the Rules”

These questions refer to the case study on page 158.

1. Does this school appear to focus on reinforcement or
punishment? What are some speci

ﬁc examples of reinforcement

and punishment within the school?
2. Do some teachers use behavioral strategies better than others?
Which strategies are used, and why are they effective or
ineffective?
3. How and why might bending the rules in

ﬂuence Jason’s future

completion of homework? What about other students

’ completion of

homework?
4. What other speci

ﬁc strategies could the teacher, the coach, and

the principal implement to increase appropriate behavior and
decrease inappropriate behavior?
5. Are the behavioral strategies used in the classrooms and the
school appropriate given the developmental level of the students?
Why or why not?

boh7850x_CL3Mod9.p160-174.indd 174

10/9/08 8:43:07 AM