Medieval Arms Armor and Tactics.doc

MEDIEVAL ARMS, ARMOR, AND TACTICS

And Interactive Qualifying Project

Submitted to the faculty

Of the

WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the

Degree of Bachelor or Science

Jack Waddell

And

Brent Palermo

Date: December 10

, 2002

Approved:

---------------------------------------------

Jeffrey L. Forgeng

Table of Contents

1.  Abstract.................................................................................................................pg 2
2.  Acknowledgements.................................................................................................3
3.  Table of Contents ...................................................................................................4
4.  Introduction (By Brent Palermo) ..............................................................................5
5.  Historical background of the Middle Ages (By Jack Waddell) ....................................6

a.  History.............................................................................................................6
b.  Feudalism.........................................................................................................35
c.  War in the Middle Ages ....................................................................................40
d.  Medieval Technology ........................................................................................47

6. Armor of the Middle Ages (By Jack Waddell) ..........................................................55

a.  Introduction ......................................................................................................55
b.  Armor for the Body ..........................................................................................57
c.  Armor for the Head..........................................................................................69
d.  Armor for the Legs ...........................................................................................78
e.  Armor for the Arms ..........................................................................................81
f.  Shields  ............................................................................................................87
g.  Snapshots of Armor Ensembles over Time .........................................................90

7. Weapons of the Middle Ages (By Brent Palermo) ....................................................100

a.  Daggers ...........................................................................................................100
b.  Swords.............................................................................................................105
c.  Axes................................................................................................................112
d.  Halberds ..........................................................................................................115
e.  Glaives.............................................................................................................116
f.  Bills .................................................................................................................117
g.  Maces..............................................................................................................117
h.  Morning Stars...................................................................................................118
i.  Flails ................................................................................................................119
j.  War Hammers..................................................................................................120
k.  Spears .............................................................................................................121
l.  Lances.............................................................................................................122
m.  Pikes................................................................................................................125
n.  Bows ...............................................................................................................126
o.  Crossbows .......................................................................................................128
p.  Slings  ..............................................................................................................132
q.  Firearms .........................................................................................................133

8. Tactics of the Middle Ages (By Justin Therrien) .......................................................136

a.  Early Middle Ages: The Dominance of Heavy Cavalry........................................136
b.  The Role of Archers .........................................................................................141
c.  Late Middle Ages: The Resurgence of Infantry ..................................................145
d.  Siege Tactics....................................................................................................148

9.  Conclusion (By Jack Waddell) .................................................................................154
10.  Works Cited...........................................................................................................160
11.  Appendix................................................................................................................162

a. Appendix A: Battle Synopses (By Jack Waddell) ................................................162

Appendix B: Armor Timetable Spreadsheet (By Jack Waddell)............................176

12.

Artifact Pages ........................................................................................................I

Introduction

The middle ages were a time of relative chaos for Europe. With the collapse of

the Holy Roman Empire at the end of the 5

century, the countries of Europe were

thrown into disarray. After a great deal of border-shifting and consolidating, Europe was

stable enough to work together and begin the first crusade in the late 11

century. 500

years and three crusades later began the Renaissance, which is considered by most as the

end of this chaotic era.

The weapons, armor and tactics of medieval combat evolved simultaneously.

Arms and armor evolved constantly to negate each other; for instance, the use of plate

mail in the 12

century caused the addition of spikes to most pole-arms that could

penetrate it. Tactics were also changed with the invention of a new weapon or a better

piece of armor. The infantry that could formerly be dispersed easily by cavalry became a

formidable foe when wielding pikes.

Overall, the middle ages were a hard time for Europe. “Dark Ages” may be a bit

too strong to describe this era, but times were far from easy. Wars and border disputes

between countries were far more common than they are today. The weapons, armor and

tactics used during this time were both brutal and effective, which is a fair statement

about the times themselves.

Historical Background

The End of Western Rome (5

Century)

At the end of the 5

Century, the Western Roman Empire was left in tatters. The

Germanic tribes held much of the land that had been imperial lands. The Ostrogoths,

who had been hired by the Eastern Emperor to reclaim Rome, instead settled there

themselves. The Franks were moving into what is now France, and the Anglo-Saxons

had begun conquering what we know as the British Isles, though some of the Britons had

escaped to mainland Europe to settle Brittany. Vandals were marching through much of

western Europe and settling into northern Africa. The Visigoths had, by this point,

conquered the area of Spain (Strayer 1974: 29). Nominally, most of these tribes

recognized the Emperor in Constantinople as their superior, but to no practical extent.

The Germanic tribes did not set out to destroy Roman culture, but their own culture

doomed that of the Latins. Laws were local and rulership hereditary for the most part.

Delegation of authority, the key to Roman bureaucracy, was impossible to a German

ruler, who stood to lose too much political strength to an empowered subordinate.

Taxation, necessary to provide for public services, was viewed with suspicion by German

eyes. The culture of the Romans was doomed to meet its end as a living culture (Strayer

1974: 30 – 32).

Still, whatever scraps of civilization were left in western Europe, they were still

descendant from Rome. The Eastern Emperor was nominally the head, and the

Mediterranean region was still the seat of civilization in Europe. Europe was clearly not

Arabic, and western Europe had yet to define itself separately, so it was Roman (Strayer

1974: 35).

The Byzantine Empire (6

Century)

The Eastern Roman Empire, which became known as the Byzantine Empire, was

finding itself with new difficulties. Local cultures, somewhat suppressed throughout the

duration of the Empire, were beginning to bubble back to the surface, especially in Syria

and Egypt. Constantinople had a problem. It could placate those of the Greco-Roman

culture in the West, Greece, and the Balkans, or it could placate the resurging local

cultures in Syria and Egypt. Since Constantinople was the seat of the Orthodox church as

well as the Byzantine Empire, this cultural stress found its voice in religious debate

(Strayer 1974: 36 – 37).

Justinian, Emperor from 527 to 565, tried to combat this growing schism and

unite the Empire, and the Mediterranean, again (Collins 1991: 113). He conquered Italy

from the Ostrogoths, pushed the Visigoths from southeastern Spain, and recovered north

Africa from the Vandals. But now Justinian found the same difficulty that had suffocated

the Western Roman Empire; there was no real desire for societal unity in the empire.

Though the Mediterranean was again united by force, it was not united by ideal. Heavy

taxes to pay for the wars alienated his own people from him. Egypt, among others, was

alienated by Justinian’s need to win the support of the Roman Church, which held

religious ideas quite to the contrary of those in Egypt. Lands were ruined, local political

autonomy was dissolved, and Justinian won little support despite all of his conquests. It

didn’t help that he had lost northern Italy to the Lombards during his reign (Strayer 1974:

37, 38).

The Empire was split apart. The eastern lands of the Empire finally broke free

from Constantinople, becoming Arab nations. Mohammed (570 to 632) did much to

unite the Arabs into one political and religiously united nation (Collins 1991: 136 – 40).

The strengthened Arab nations, even after Mohammed’s death, were thus able to conquer

Syria, Egypt and much of North Africa, and Spain. The Arab conglomerate controlled

much of the Middle East, though Turkey was still held by the Byzantines, and had

considerable holdings in North Africa and Western Europe by 720, and was by this point

raiding into Gaul (Strayer 1974: 40, 41).

Pre-Carolingian Europe (7

Century)

With the East and West separated physically by the Arab Empire as they were

ideologically by their cultural differences, the two regions grew even further apart. The

remnants of the Byzantine Empire - Greece and the Balkans - united under patriotism and

a sense of religious identity. This did not do much to unite the Orthodox Church with the

Roman Church, and tensions rose between the two factions of Christianity. Western

Europe, at this time nominally identifying with the Roman church, felt all the more

alienated from the East by these tensions. By the 7

century there were three distinct

regions in Europe: the West, occupied by the “barbarian” tribes, and identified with the

Roman Church, but culturally and socially still disunited and the poorest of the three

regions; the Arab Empire, largely Moslem, and the most advanced in the intellectual arts

of science and philosophy, inherited from Greece; and the East, the remnants of the

Byzantine Empire, culturally dependant on Constantinople and the Orthodox Church

(Strayer 1974: 42,43).

Western Europe was weak and without the benefit of a common civilization.

Lombards still stand in Italy, the Franks hold Gaul, the Anglo-Saxons have conquered

much of England, Visigoths still, for the time being, call Spain their own, and Germany is

split between the Bavarians, the Franks, and the Saxons. These peoples were not unified

even, necessarily, amongst themselves; much less could they hold unity across a

continent. The stage was set in Western Europe for either total chaos, annexation under a

stronger people, or a strong leader to come in and change nearly everything. Fortunately

for the West, this latter is what occurred.

The Rise of the Carolingian Empire (8

Century)

Of these peoples spread throughout the West, the Franks were the strongest in

relation to the other nations. They were not yet strong enough, though, to assert their

presence as they would soon. Throughout the West, including the Franks, the Germanic

traditions kept kings from being able to effectively hold power over large portions of

land. Rule was mostly effective locally, but to rule at a distance meant delegation of

authority, which meant, in essence, no authority on part of the king.

Such was the unpromising background for the rise of the Carolingian dynasty,

named after its most prominent member, Charles the Great, or Charlemagne. Charles

Martel, who was to be Charlemagne’s grandfather, set the stage for the Carolingian

dynasty by holding a powerful mayorship of the Frankish king, originally an office of

mere stewardship that gradually became an office of some power, though, in theory, less

than that of the king. By Charles Martel’s time, though, the mayorship had effective

control of the kingdom. Even when the king died in 737, there was no need to establish a

new one, so no one bothered until Charles’s own death in 741 (Collins 1991: 248).

Charles used some of his power to encourage missions to the pagans, setting a precedent

for his progeny (Strayer 1974: 46, 47).

Pippin, Charles’s son and the next mayor, felt secure enough in his power to

simply depose the standing king and take his place in 751 (Collins 1991: 247). Pippin

strengthened his position, and that of the Roman Church, by both asking for Papal

approval of his crown, and, later, even being anointed as king by the Pope himself

(Strayer 1974: 48). Pippin’s strength grew from being recognized by God’s

Representative on Earth as a legitimate ruler, and the Pope’s grew by receiving the power

to declare such a thing. Also, Pippin saw to it that Rome was protected from the

Lombards, powerful enemies that still held much of Italy.

Pippin’s relationship with the church, already strong, was made stronger by

increasing the power and organizational efficiency of the church. Missions were

established to convert pagans to Christianity. Reforms were made to intensify Christian

identity amongst the nominally Christian. Other reforms organized the church into a

system of subordinates, with the Pope the head of all, a position he theoretically held

previously, but was now more strongly in place (Strayer 1974: 48).

Charlemagne continued these efforts when he was king, starting in 768, but did so

in such a competent manner that they led, ultimately, to a Europe that possessed a clear

identity. He saw to it that more peoples were converted to the church, either by

missionary or by martial means. He organized the clergy and arranged education for

them such that they were made more intellectual, moral, and effective. He crushed the

Lombards and established himself in much of Italy, freeing Rome from the fear of that

particular enemy. He established a strong parish system, spreading Christianity to the

rural areas and keeping it strong (Strayer 1974: 49, 50).

Charlemagne’s political and military strength was such that, at the turn of the 9

century, he had himself crowned emperor by the Pope. Christianity and the state were

now recognized, for the time being, together throughout the empire. The West had won

its own civilization, clearly apart from that of Constantinople. The Roman Church, too,

was freed from the last ties leaving it nominally subordinate to the Orthodox Church. It

had an empire to represent it, too, now (Strayer 1974: 50).

The Fall of the Carolingian Empire (9

Century)

Though the Carolingian Empire was to fail in another century or so, it had done

what was needed to give a distinct civilization to the West. The church had gained the

power and organization that it held through much of the Middle Ages, and the shattered

fragments of what had been Charles’ Empire would live to become some of the major

political units through the rest of the Middle Ages.

Charlemagne’s Empire fell in part to the fact that localism still existed in most

parts of the Empire. The people were theoretically politically united, but they were not

interdependent or materially united. Local authority was strong, even under

Charlemagne. After he and his immediate successor, Louis the Pious, were gone, there

was no way to keep the lands politically united (Strayer 1974: 57, 58).

This was aggravated by the fact that Louis left the land to not one of his sons, but

all three, one taking the west (France), one the east (Germany), and one the middle (the

Low Countries and central Italy). This led to internal conflict, in which the eldest son,

once controlling the middle lands between France and Germany, lost his lands to his

brothers. The powerful local rulers, the counts, took up more power, and by 900, the

Carolingian family only nominally ruled their empire.

The Rise of Feudalism (10

Century)

From this fractured empire evolved feudalism as a response to the dangers present

in the world. Norse, Magyar, and Muslim raiders from the North, East, and South,

respectively, were harrying Europe, making travel and trade difficult and dangerous. The

danger fueled experimentation with a governmental “system” that has come to be known

as feudalism. Feudalism is a term describing a relationship between a superior and a

subordinate, wherein the subordinate accepts a fief of land in return for a promise to

serve, specifically in a military capacity. More can be learned of feudalism in the section

Feudalism starting on page 29.

The Ottonian Empire (10

Century)

By the 10

Century, the lands of Germany were the most powerful in western

Europe. From the ashes of the eastern portion of Carolingian Empire rose a new leader,

Otto I, who ruled from 936 to 973 (Strayer 1974: 67). Otto annexed northern Italy. In

response, the Pope reinstated the title of Emperor of Rome, gone since 924, on the head

of Otto, officially starting what became known as the Holy Roman Empire and

permanently tying the new empire to the affairs of Italy and Rome (Strayer 1974: 69).

Otto’s Empire remained strong even after his death. His rule, and that of his

successors, prevented feudalism from entering their kingdom, but their system, which

relied on voluntary support by local lords and leaders, did not develop systems that

mirrored those created by feudalism. The emperor was more dependent on his

subordinates than they were on him, at least in terms of direct control. This, and the

Emperor’s need for clerical economic support, led to the weakening of the empire by the

century, when the Emperor and the Papacy bashed heads. Henry II, the emperor, had

tried to place his own Pope in Rome. He narrowly avoided being excommunicated, but

the damage was done, and Henry’s princes and the local clergy had withdrawn support.

Feudalism made its way into Germany. This drama turned out to be a victory for the

Church, which had won independence from lay authority for the election of Popes

(Strayer 1974: 70 - 73).

The Burgeoning (11

and 12

Centuries)

The 11

and 12

centuries saw expansion and a degree of economic surplus.

Social cooperation and the gradual development of a true western civilization had begun.

Feudalism was gradually turning from lordship to stateship (Strayer 1974: 75). Things

were gradually looking up.

The people of Flanders and Normandy were especially involved in expansion.

The former was by and large peaceful, involving clearing of land and migration to

sparsely populated regions. The Normans favored martial methods. They conquered

southern Italy and claimed Sicily from the Moslems by 1091. Also, and most famously,

they began the conquest of England from the Anglo-Saxons.

England, which had a well-organized system of local government and a strong

sense of unity, was poorly suited to resisting a strong military, especially one that

included knights. At Hastings Duke William won a total victory in 1066. He combined

feudalism with the organized government institutions in place and built one of the

strongest central governments that Europe would see (Strayer 1974: 77-79).

In the 11

century, there was a great deal of reform in the Church. Though

Europe had been Christian since the end of the Roman age, it was only in the 10

century

that the full church, parish, and monastic system could contact most of the people in the

West. This religious revival strengthened the movement to free the church from secular

rule. It also led to many more people donating property to the church, and an increase in

the admission to religious orders.

The First Crusade (Late 11

Century)

This background made the First Crusade possible, and may have even led to it.

At the end of the 11

Century, the Arabs in the east had conquered much of Asia Minor,

leaving the Byzantine Empire feeling exposed. Byzantium asked for help, and Pope

Urban II, perhaps motivated by a number of factors, began to preach a Crusade

throughout the West in 1095. A Crusade to rescue the East from the Arabs might help to

repair the rift between the Churches. It might also open the avenues for pilgrimages to

Jerusalem, since the political situation at the time amongst the Arabs made this difficult.

Whatever the reason for his decision, he took up the Byzantine cause, and word spread

quickly throughout the West (Strayer 1974: 80).

The First Crusade set out with two goals. The first was to protect the Byzantine

Empire, as requested. The second was to “regain” the holy city of Jerusalem. The

religious nature of their objectives, and the fact that the war was called for by the Pope,

clearly added to the religious zeal of the undertaking. The crusaders were pilgrims, at

least in a literal sense, as they were granted the rights and duties of pilgrimage before

their departure. While it is certain that some of the crusaders had ulterior motives,

perhaps plunder or merely the glory of combat, it seems likely that the majority of

crusaders went out of true Christian idealism (Riley-Smith 1987: 11).

Unfortunately, the fanned flames of Christian idealism led to anti-Semitism in the

west. Jews were slaughtered in many places in Europe (Riley-Smith 1987: 16). In time,

though, the crusaders went east as they were supposed to.

The first crusaders, who left before the date set by the Pope, met a number of

obstacles. They left during a famine, and were undersupplied, a characteristic they

couldn’t seem to shake. This led to disorder in the ranks, and attempts at pillage during

the journey in areas that were not initially hostile to the crusaders. Finally, upon arriving

in the Empire, they found themselves unprepared for. The Emperor did not have systems

in place to supply them (Riley-Smith 1987: 20). They attempted more pillaging,

straining the relations.

The second wave (though the term “wave” is a generalization; new crusaders

were constantly coming and old ones going) fared better. They were well supplied after a

good harvest in western Europe. They were well led by strong nobles, as well. They met

resistance in Hungary, which had annihilated three crusading armies already due to

pillaging earlier. Hungary was placated when one crusading noble allowed himself to be

taken hostage (Riley-Smith 1987: 21)

The crusaders continued on. They encountered a distrustful Emperor and little

Greek support (Riley-Smith 1987: 24). This led to further Western distrust of the Empire

and, by proxy, the Orthodox Church. Emperor Alexius demanded vows of fealty of each

noble leader, as well as vows to turn over lands won in the war to the Empire. This latter

vow was not well received, since the imperial army was apparently more interested in

occupying lands conquered by the crusading army than it was in actually assisting them

in conquest (Riley-Smith 1987: 24).

The Crusaders met a number of victories. They first took Nicaea, the first major

obstacle. Shortly thereafter, in June of 1097, Edessa was won, and made into the first

Latin settlement of the East. Antioch was to fall in 1098. Finally Jerusalem was won in

1099 (Riley-Smith: 26-29, 33).

Though the goals of the Crusade had been fulfilled, the Pope threatened with

excommunication any that did not complete their vows to crusade. This, and the victory

achieved by returning crusaders, spurred what may be called a third wave, but this

accomplished little.

The 12

Century

At the end of the 11

century the political and religious revivals across Europe,

coupled with the confidence gained in the successful Crusade, helped lead to an

economic revival. Settlements were expanded. Lands were cleared. Agricultural surplus

allowed for expanded town settlement and trade and craft professions. The potential

freedom available to serfs of the time in large part forced feudal leaders to free the

peasants from the land, or lose them to towns or new lands. Things were, in broad terms,

looking up by the time of the 12

Century (Strayer 1974: 83-87).

The economic expansion, the political reform, and the strengthened arm of the

Church lead to a number of changes. Justice was becoming a stronger motivation for

government. As a result, interest in study and practice of law began to revive. The food

surplus could support scholars, and scholars there were, though few by our standards. In

monasteries, or in schools that would shortly become universities, students studied law,

mathematics, sciences, and philosophy. The classics were revived for study. Greek and

even Moslem knowledge was sought by eager minds (Strayer 1974: 94, 95).

Educated men, especially those that had been schooled in law, began finding

themselves in positions of authority in the church and among the lay rulers. More

effective bureaucracies began forming, allowing for remote administration of lands and

systems. The Church bureaucracy, with help of the reform, was highly organized by the

end of the twelfth century, with the Pope as administrative head as well as religious

leader of the church (Strayer 1974: 101).

The system of canon law, both in theory and application, gradually developed.

The monk Gratian codified much of Church law during this time. Also, a system of

courts and appeals was being developed (Strayer 1974: 105). Already methods of

witnesses and investigation were gaining dominance over trial by ordeal. The desire for

reason and order, sought after by the intellectuals that were beginning to surface in

Europe, was beginning to spread throughout the West’s conscience.

The strength of the church, aided by the success in the East, gave the people of

Europe a strong feeling of Christian identity. It was much as if there was one Christian

civilization. There were still kingdoms, domains, and battles over land, but nationalistic

identities and local identities were secondary to Christian identity (Strayer 1974: 100).

This Christian identity was bolstered by the threat to the Christian conquered lands near

Jerusalem.

The Second Crusade (12

Century)

The Second Crusade, called in 1145 after the loss of Edessa to the Turks, did not

achieve much. The first force, led by the German king Conrad III, was too large and

slow. It ran out of provisions in Asia Minor without being able to meet the Arab forces

and was forced to disband. The French force, led by Louis VII, might have fared better if

not for the apparently intentional interference by the Greeks, who were suspicious of the

French. Supplies were not made available, so famine and starving horses were a

problem. Greek settlements did not deter the progress of Turkish harassing forces.

Finally, the fleet promised by the Emperor to carry the French to Antioch was far too

small to carry all the army. Conrad and Louis, realizing that Antioch was impossible to

defeat with the force they had, made for Damascus, but was unable to score a victory.

They were forced to return to Europe with nothing but a growing resentment for the

Greeks (Strayer 1974: 93-102).

The conquest of Jerusalem encouraged the West greatly, though it was to be lost

again in 1187 to the Arab leader Saladin. It gave greater power to the Church, since it

had been the Pope who directed the action. It demonstrated the power of the West, that

they could accomplish such a task. It helped to open the Mediterranean to sea travel and

trade as well (Strayer 1974: 83).

The Political Powers of the 12

Century

Through the 12

century, and through most of the Middle Ages, England and

France were at odds. England held feudal lands in France, which did not please the

French monarchy. England’s financial strength, supported by efficient collection of

revenues and its strong centralized government, made it very powerful, despite its

relatively small size and population. Louis VI, king of France, managed to gain control

of much of his own French lands during his reign, and did much to increase the power of

his throne. The Holy Roman Empire was greatly weakened and poorly respected at the

beginning of the 1100s, due in part to the Emperor’s run-in with the Papacy in the

previous century (Strayer 1974: 101). Frederick Barbarossa would try to turn things

around and centralize the Empire, but would not complete this task before drowning

while on the 3

Crusade. In fact, after his heir’s death, the Empire would fragment more,

effectively destroying any central government.

The 3

Crusade (Late 12

Century)

By 1188, much of Frankish Syria – the land that had been taken by crusaders and

was now ruled by lords that came from western Europe - was being retaken by Saladin.

Jerusalem has already fallen to him, and the French King of Jerusalem was held captive.

Tyre, regarded as the “last bulwark of Frankish resistance,” held off Saladin while

sending a representative bishop to Europe to preach a Third Crusade.

The kings of the major kingdoms in Europe personally vowed to crusade. Thus

Frederick Barbarossa of the Empire, who was to die at a most fateful time, Henry II of

England, and Phillip Augustus of France would join the many other knights and peasants

on the crusade. Henry and Phillip, though, were slowed by petty bickering, and Frederick

left Europe without them (Lindsay 1970: 178).

Meanwhile, the Greeks were conspiring with Saladin to sabotage the crusade by

lack of supply. Frederick, in outrage, sacked the city of Adrianople, but decided to spare

Constantinople. He continued east. His army first took Konya, the Seljuk Turkish

capital. Saladin, rightly fearful of the power of this German army, withdrew and razed

fortresses on his way (Lindsay 1970: 178, 179). The German army, though, was left

demoralized and disorganized by Frederick’s death. They could proceed no further.

Guy, King of Jerusalem, was released by Saladin, perhaps so that he would get in

the way of the French lord Conrad of Monferrat, who was masterfully defending Tyre

against the Turks. Guy was turned away from Tyre, but managed to recruit an army on

his own from crusaders. He began to prepare an attack on the “Second City” of Acre

(Lindsay 1970: 180).

Saladin followed Guy with his own army. The armies met, but managed only to

balance one another’s forces and advantages and cause a stalemate. Now neither army

had an advantage. The Frankish army, under Guy, was at Acre, but could not lay a

proper siege with Saladin at his back. Saladin could not force Guy out. A war of attrition

commenced, and each army was situated to prevent supplies to the other (Lindsay 1970:

181).

After a desperate re-supply mission by Conrad in 1190, the Frankish army was no

longer starving, but a new development ensued. Guy’s wife, by whom he had right to be

King, died without heir. The inheritance passed to the Queen’s sister, who was married

to a man with no leadership ability. Conrad’s strong friends forced a divorce between the

two, and he himself married her. Guy and his allies did not recognize the crown of

Conrad, and the camp was significantly divided (Lindsay 1970: 183).

Matters were made worse by the coming of the French and English. Richard the

Lionheart of England, who replaced Henry as king, led the English, where Phillip led the

French. Richard, upon arriving, took up support of Guy. Phillip, of course contrary to

Richard, supported Conrad. Both armies reinforced the siege of Acre, which could

finally continue. Temporarily, a truce between Richard and Phillip was arranged, and

under their strength Acre fell (Lindsay 1970: 185).

The truce quickly dissolved, and hostilities presented themselves in the matter of

crowning the King of Jerusalem. A compromise was reached: Guy would be king, but

Conrad would succeed him. With this done, Phillip left for Europe, leaving Richard to go

for Jerusalem.

Things looked promising. Saladin could not stop the approaching army.

Harassing attacks, which involved shooting at the flanks of the column by mounted

archers, did little due to the heavy armor worn. When Saladin met Richard outside Arsuf,

the charge of the mounted knights put the Arab army to rout. Saladin couldn’t stop

Richard, but he could keep him from taking Jerusalem by keeping a large ground force

behind Richard. The English king knew he couldn’t besiege a city as strong as Jerusalem

and hold off a flanking force (Lindsay 1970: 190).

Time was running short for Richard. Behind him in Europe, Phillip and Richard’s

brother, John, were conspiring against him and ravaging his lands. After a raid on a rich

caravan and a heroic defense of Jaffa, Richard left Asia Minor in 1192, leaving Jerusalem

in the hands of Saladin, who was to die in 1193.

The 13

Century

If the twelfth century had brought great change, then the thirteenth century was

the time to meditate on them. Concentration was on the details of the new thoughts and

ideas that had come out of the previous century, not so much on developing new ideas.

One idea with great impact was reason and logic. It had gained prominence in the

twelfth century, but now it was definitely becoming the standard of the intellectuals in

Europe. Desire for law was profound, and legal techniques and study of law were

improved yet more. University graduates were found in positions of respect and

authority. Nature was seen as a place of orderly and reasonable rules (Strayer 1974:

144). Literacy and learning was gradually spreading to those not normally academic.

More books were being written, and new universities were emerging. Compendia and

encyclopedias were written, summarizing all of human knowledge. Thomas Aquinas, the

most influential theologian of the Middle Ages, was active during this time (Strayer

1974: 178 – 180).

This dependence on order and a population density reaching its limit in potential

growth led to a lesser degree of social mobility. Whereas in the twelfth century it was

somewhat possible to better one’s lot in life by moving to a town or settling new ground,

the thirteenth century saw a people that understood in their hearts that everyone had a

place and a classification. The relatively new middle class of the townsfolk did what they

could to prevent those from peasant classes from joining their ranks (Strayer 1974: 145).

The economy of Europe, having provided a surplus in the century before, was

now growing at a slow but stable rate. Attention was focused more upon retention of

current success than risky ventures that might result in great success or great loss (Strayer

1974: 145). The importance of social and economic stability was correlated with a

relatively peaceful time for most of Europe.

By the end of the century, Italy had demonstrated itself to be amongst

economically elite. The cities of Italy did much trading, especially with profitable and

expensive items. Their seamanship grew strong, and they were sailing and selling to

England by the close of the thirteenth century. Other regions, such as Germany, were

becoming more industrial, providing more income for their inhabitants. Agriculture was

doing well, and the peasant classes saw a better standard of living than those that would

come in a few generations (Strayer 1974: 177).

The Gradual Decline of the Church (13

Century)

The beginning of the thirteenth century saw the church at its strongest, but the end

of 1200s was to see its decline. Innocent III, Pope from 1198 to 1216, was a strong, if

somewhat ruthless, leader. Under him the Albigensian heresy was suppressed and

Waldensian heresy was eliminated, but the former was done at the expense of the support

offered by southern France when Innocent placed lords from northern France into the

seats of the south. The orders of the Franciscan and Dominican friars were established

and encouraged. The court of the Pope was the supreme ecclesiastical court in Europe,

and he did much to improve the administration of the church. However, his actions

involved the church in a long and ultimately dangerous feud with the Hohenstaufens, the

ruling family of the Holy Roman Empire, that would ultimately lead to the

embarrassment of the church and contribute to its decline. When King John of England

(1199 – 1216), Richard the Lionheart’s brother, failed to appoint Innocent’s choice of

archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent III excommunicated the king and declared an

interdiction. When this didn’t produce quick results, he had France invade England.

John backed down, and even ceded England to the Pope, who granted it back to John as a

feudal fief of the papacy (Strayer 1974: 147-151).

His strong-armed methods would eventually bring the church trouble. The

papacy was becoming too secular for its own good. Though this fault was due to too

much strength in the Holy See, the next was to be due to too little strength, when

Innocent was unable to control a crusading army.

The 4

Crusade (Early 13

Century)

In 1202, a 4

Crusade was declared to once again try to free Jerusalem. French

and Italian lords set forth to Venice, from whom they had hired ships to take them east.

Upon arrival, they found that they did not have enough men to fill the ships that they had

asked for. Unable to pay their debt, and with Venice unwilling to forgive it, the crusaders

agreed to attack the Christian city of Zara, a trade rival of Venice. The Pope protested to

no avail. The Venetians, apparently, had found an army that they could convince of

nearly anything. Venice produced a man to claim the throne of the Byzantine Empire,

and directed most of the crusaders to conquer Constantinople, which was also the seat of

the Orthodox Church. The crusaders, perhaps thinking that a friendly Byzantium would

allow easier passage to Asia Minor and therefore Jerusalem, agreed. In 1204

Constantinople was overrun by the crusaders. The Venetian candidate had quarrels with

the crusading army, so they deposed him and set up their own Latin Empire of the East.

The Byzantine Empire, though greatly weakened, would reconquer some of its lost lands

in 1261, ending the ill-fated Latin Empire of the East. (Strayer 1974: 152). Innocent III

forgave the crusaders, since with Constantinople under western rule, he may have been

able to heal the breach between the churches.

The Church Under Innocent III

Another of Innocent’s mistakes was to impose taxes on the clergy, often paid

directly to the kings of Europe for use in crusades. The precedent for taxation of the

clergy was set, and kings would soon begin taxing the churchmen for their own military

endeavors by the end of the thirteenth century. It also set the clergy on the unpleasant

task of being more worldly wise and more careful when collecting revenues (Strayer

1974: 154, 162).

By 1250, the feud between the papacy and the Hohenstaufens resulted in the

embarrassment of the church and the destruction of central authority in Germany. The

feud persisted in Sicily and Italy. Innocent IV called in the French lord Charles of Anjou,

who received full crusade benefits to put down the Hohenstaufens. Charles was

victorious by 1268, but would lose Sicily to a revolt in 1282. Still, the French, who were

traditionally friendly with the church, held Naples and much of the mainland of Italy

(Stayer 1974: 161).

Meanwhile, the church had finished its battle with the Albigensian heresy in

southern France. The heresy had risen again after the southern French were unable to

hold it down. Another crusade was called against them, this one led by Louis VIII. By

1226, Louis had made sure that the Albigensians could never pose a military threat or

hope to gain their own independent state. However, the heresy still existed underground.

Pope Gregory IX finds a solution: he instates the Inquisition and sends educated, pious,

and fervent Dominicans to investigate and root out the now underground heresy (Strayer

1974: 162).

The Temporary Rise of Central Power (12

and 13

Century)

In England and France, royal authority was growing strong. King Phillip II of

France, who ruled from 1180 to 1223, and who was called Phillip Augustus, did much to

increase and strengthen central authority in his land, including winning many French fiefs

that were feudally under the king of England by summoning King John to his court. A

strong and clever king, he left much to be desired in way of morality.

His son, grandson, and later successors, did a better job of strengthening the moral

authority of the crown. Louis VIII, Phillip’s son, ruled only until 1226, three years after

his reign began. Louis IX (1226 – 1270), who would one day be canonized as a saint,

was a man of strong moral character and political power. He believed strongly in his

authority as king, and believed that feudal lords should indeed be subordinate. His

administrative reforms did much to ensure that his bureaucracy was staffed with, in broad

strokes, men more moral and fair that many of those that had come before. His

administrators gradually absorbed some of the legal authority of the barons when Louis

gave the royal court, generally staffed with these legally trained administrators, rights to

hear and judge appeals. By and large, much of Louis’s progress in power was made by

legal maneuvers such as this (Strayer 1974: 164 - 167).

Phillip III (1270 – 1285) was not as great a ruler as was St. Louis, but through

accident or design he did strengthen the crown by obtaining two great fiefs, one by

inheritance from an uncle, and one by marriage. By this time, only four great fiefs were

not under direct royal authority. He had also inherited or earned the loyalty of his people,

the old friendship with the church, and the subordination of his feudal lords. By the

middle of the 13

century, the French king was the most respected ruler in Europe

(Strayer 1974: 167, 168). Things were going well for the French, but they retained two

weaknesses. The first harked back quite some ways; the people of the land identified

themselves first with their province, not their nation. The second: France had set no

precedent for taxation, which would soon be needed.

England, by contrast, had a strongly unified national identity. Central authority

was strong, but would soon be weakened. In 1215, the great barons under King John

rebelled after too many taxes had been asked for. John was forced to sign the Magna

Carta, which protected the rights of the feudal lords, and limited “arbitrary government”

under the king (Strayer 1974: 171). The Magna Carta, though, did not make it impossible

for the king to rule. It was rather reasonable, demanding that the king gain consent of a

council of barons before imposing large taxes, and forcing the king to follow due process

of law to redress grievances. By presenting the Magna Carta, the English barons had

learned to act together, and to engage popular support by appealing to the common

welfare.

John would die a year later, during an indecisive civil war with his barons. Henry

III (1216 – 1272) was too young to rule, but his regent did admirably well to secure peace

with the lords. Henry, when he came of age in 1225, confirmed the charter, forcing him

to consult the lords for any major policy change or general tax. Politically, support of the

lesser landholders and burgesses was beneficial when appealing to the great lords. For

expediency, he began to gather them all together to meet in what was being called

Parliament by the 1240s. Soon enough, Henry asked for representatives from each

county in addition to the merchants and lords already attending.

Henry’s desire for popular support was well founded. When he lost it for being

too concerned with international politics, Simon de Montfort led the Baron’s Rebellion

against the king between 1258 and 1265. Henry, though defeated, remained king. He

gradually rebuilt his power and defeated Simon. Henry, and the barons, had learned that

the king must attend to baronial demands (Strayer 1974: 173 – 176).

The end of the thirteenth century would mark the gradual decline of medieval

structure and thought. The church had lost power, but was still recognized as some sort

of authority, though it had still lost its power to command. People were beginning to

identify themselves less with a Europe-wide Christian community, and more with local or

national communities. Economically, Europe mysteriously slowed down, and economic

stability was damaged.

The 14

Century

England and France, ruled by Edward I (1272 – 1307) and Phillip IV (1285 –

1315) respectively, were drifting towards war. Both taxed the clergy, crossing the thin

line from the precedent set by Innocent III in taxing the clergy for crusades, in order to

pay for their war. Pope Boniface VIII (1294 – 1303) objected, and ordered that the

clergy not pay taxes unless ordered by the papacy. In France and England the clergy

became unpopular and were seen as unwilling to make personal sacrifices for the

common good. The clergy begged the Pope to rescind his order. The Pope backtracked,

and revised his order to read: taxation of clergy is forbidden without papal consent,

except in the cases of emergency and defense. This was vague enough to allow the kings

to do as they wished (Strayer 1974, 193).

In 1301 Boniface foolishly had a showdown with Phillip, using the pretext of

Phillip’s arrest of a bishop on questionable charges. Boniface wanted to assert his

authority over all ecclesiastical affairs, while Phillip wanted to assert control over all

denizens of his domain. Boniface tried and failed to bring popular support against the

king. Phillip, in a series of conferences and local meetings, stirred up a great deal of

outcry against Boniface in France. Finally, Phillip accused the Pope of heresy, among a

number of other charges. Phillip even sent a representative to the papal palace in Anagni

to arrest the Pope and bring him to face the charges before a General Council of the

church. Boniface was held for several days before Anagnisians rebelled and forced out

the representative of Phillip. Boniface, old by this time, could not bear the strain caused

by these unprecedented events, and soon died (Strayer 1974: 194 – 195). This

demonstrated the power of the secular governments over the Holy See. The popes

afterward, until 1327, would stay in France, not in Rome. The Pope gained a bad

reputation for injustice, and by around 1350, the papacy had lost nearly all of its political

authority, as well as moral credibility.

Edward and Phillip were well on their way to establishing modern sovereign

states. The confusing system of overlapping jurisdictions and conflicting authorities that

accompanied feudalism was gradually being destroyed in England and France. They

each had gained a great deal of sovereign authority over the citizens of their lands,

demonstrated by Phillip’s showdown with the church. Nationalism was growing as the

primary identity of their lands, as opposed to previous years when local or provincial

identities were more prominent. They had all the prerequisites for a sovereign state, but

they could not hold them. Their goal was to grow quickly, too quickly for their own

good. Feudal lands were brought under direct rule, and from this the short step was taken

to annexing bordering principalities. Lands that couldn’t be taken by legal manipulations

were attacked by force. This didn’t succeed in Scotland for the English or Flanders for

the French. Both monarchies resorted to long, expensive, and ultimately unsuccessful

wars to try to annex these locales (Strayer 1974: 198-200). People were unhappy with

their governments, as otherwise successful as they seemed to be.

Ultimately, both kings ran into the same conflict. They could tax no more without

upsetting their own people. Edward resorted to Parliament, which grew in strength and

representation. Parliament became the highest court in England. It gave the king the

opportunity to meet most of his subordinates at once, but it also gave the lords a chance

to meet and gave some degree of authority to the council. This would prove damaging to

Edward’s weaker successors. The French ruler had to secure the support of his people as

well, but he did not have a regularly meeting council with which to do so. He resorted to

sending representatives to meet with local assemblies. These were not as successful at

drumming up support (Strayer 1974:203)

The Decline of Central Power

The death of both Edward and Phillip brought aristocratic rebellion. These

rebellions did almost nothing, but they demonstrated the dissatisfaction that both France

and England had had with their kings and began to take down the pre-sovereign state

structures that both had held. The aristocracy gained power and popular support.

Unpopular taxes passed by both kings had weakened them, and the lords jumped at the

opportunity to be seen as protectors of the people. The kings that followed, greatly

weakened by baronial power, were forced to depend on the great lords. They gave them

positions of authority and respect, and relied on them for military support, as the barons

now held the armies. This is feudalism, but with the focus changed. The landholders

were not dependent on the king because they held his lands. He was dependent on them

and was thus forced to grant them lands (Strayer 1974: 204).

The barons were not interested in destroying central authority. They were

interested in controlling it. This led to civil wars and intrigues between barons as they

struggled for power. Kings in England had trouble holding their thrones; between 1304

and 1485 six of the nine English kings to rule were deposed (Strayer 1974: 204).

The Hundred Years War (14

and 15

Centuries)

The Hundred Years War was caused by this political instability and contributed

greatly to it. This war, between England and France in the years from 1337 to 1453,

involved sporadic conflict over any number of pretexts, but primarily to reduce anxiety

over domestic issues by resorting to foreign ones. England nearly won twice, once in

1346 at the battle of Crecy and once at Agincourt in 1415. Each time the French rallied

behind a heroic figure, Du Guesclin first and then Joan of Arc. Each time England was

pushed back, rebellion and civil war commenced in English lands. French lands were

devastated, but the victories over England won support for the monarchy once again.

With the end of the Hundred Years War, the French monarchy was once again in a

position of authority. England would see the Wars of the Roses before the Tudors would

reclaim English monarchial authority (Strayer 1974: 205, 206).

The Recession (14

Century)

Those that saw the Hundred Years War saw other difficulties and disasters. The

economy was in a depression. People strove to hold on to what assets they had rather

than build new sources of wealth. Money was becoming important, even to those with

land, not pleasant when there were wild fluctuations in currency value. Maximum wages

were set by guilds, which had developed monopolies in the towns. Many industrial areas

were experiencing large unemployment. Social mobility was even more diminished than

it was in the 13

century. Economic distress led to uprisings throughout Europe (Strayer

1974: 206-207).

The economic difficulties were exacerbated by the bubonic plague that swept

through Europe in the mid 14

century. Estimates of the mortality rate are widely varied,

but at least in urban centers 20 percent of the population fell under the Black Death. The

population shrinkage deepened the economic difficulties. The economic consequences of

the plague would last into the 15

century (Strayer 1974: 208).

The Great Schism (Late 14

, Early 15

Century)

The Great Schism of the church, caused by French cardinals declaring the papacy

of Urban VI invalid in the late 1300s, shook the faith of the followers of the church. The

French raised up Clement VII as their Pope, and some secular authorities supported them.

A General Council of the church set out to fix the situation, but instead elected a third

Pope in 1409. This was getting silly, even the secular authorities agreed. They had a

new General Council meet in 1414, which became the first great international assembly,

which was theoretically led by the clergy, but very much guided by the kings. In the end,

the kings agreed to depose the French and the council-elected popes. Urban VI resigned,

and the Council appointed a generally recognized Pope (Strayer 1974: 209). The damage

had been done, though. The church was coming under fire from reformers already,

claiming that the clergy were too greedy and the church was too worldly.

The Close of The Medieval Era (Late 15

Century)

The end of the 15

century, with the end of the Hundred Years’ War, saw revival

of popular support for the monarchies. Baronial control had only led to war, which tired

the people. France began the revival with the crown successfully resting on the heads of

Charles VII (Charles the Victorious, who had backed Joan of Arc) and Louis XI. Spain

soon followed when Ferdinand and Isabella married in 1477 and ended civil war. After

the Tudors rose to the throne after the War of the Roses in 1485, England joined the

monarchial revival (Strayer 1974: 222). These new monarchies for the most part relied

on old institutions, such as assemblies and Parliament, which were no longer opposed to a

strong rule by the throne. People had come to prefer a government that was too strong to

a government that was too weak, which would lead to more war.

The strength of the government and the weakness of the central authority of the

church led to the clergy to depend on the kings in their lands. This made it a short step

for the rulers to split away from the church, and laid the foundation for the Protestant

Revolution.

The end of the 15

century and the stability it brought caused a surge in European

energy. The economy reversed itself and began growing. Technological advances, with

some designed for war, and some dependent on advances made for war, were relatively

prominent. Kings of this time were interested in commerce, and thus encouraged

navigation and exploration, that would one day lead ultimately to European empires

spreading around the world. A revival of art and literature, influenced by the

Renaissance that was already booming in Italy, began to flourish (Strayer 1974: 225).

Though medieval institutions and ideals persisted for years to come, some even evolving

into structures surviving in our own modern states, the stage was set for a new era,

growing enthusiastically from the boom at the end of the 15

century and the beginning

of the 16

Feudalism

From the fractured Carolingian Empire evolved feudalism as a response to the

dangers present in the world. Norse raiders from the North, Magyars from the East, and

Muslim raiders from South were harrying Europe, making travel and trade difficult and

dangerous (Strayer 1974: 60). Feudalism came about differently in various parts of

Europe – England barely saw feudalism until William the Conquer brought it to the isle,

but the lands that had once been the Carolingian empire were relatively quick to feudalize

(Koch 1978: 39). It was not a coherent system, but an evolved response to needs,

especially need for security. It came about in parallel throughout Europe, but generally

independently and with great variation.

Feudalism is characterized by vassals and their lords, bound to agreement by oath,

service, and land. Though elaborations were present, the most basic agreement between

lord and vassal was as follows: the vassal would declare himself the lord’s man by paying

homage, a gesture of subordination. The vassal would agree to provide a specified term

of military service per year, either by his person, his support of a specific number of

knights by subinfeudation, or, often, both. In return, the lord would provide the vassal

with means of economic support. Throughout much of the Middle Ages, this support

came in the form of a parcel of land called a fief, complete with arable land and villages

of peasants to till it. Early in the Middle Ages, the vassal might have more commonly

been supported by the lord’s own household, such as the German ministerial, though this

is not technically feudalism. A ministerial was a serf-like warrior bound to a superior

that could not own property or marry, among many other things, without the superior’s

leave. Other, less common, benefices in return for service include rights to toll a bridge

or road, rights to the fees at a certain mill or press, or similar. By and large, though, the

most basic means of infeudation was by passage of land (Koch 1978: 38, 39).

Vassalage, though subordination, was not considered derogatory; by being the

vassal of a noble, one was a noble. Vassalage was a combination of Germanic and

Roman traditions of subordination, military service, and lordship, and therefore was

already somewhat natural to many of the people of Europe, for they had descended from

Germanic and Roman backgrounds (Hopkins 1990: 26).

The smallest portion of land that could be granted as a fief was that which was

reckoned to be the minimum support of a single knight, with all of his arms, armor,

retainers, horses, etc. This was called a knight’s fee, and could be on the order of 300 to

600 acres (Gies 1984: 97). Vassals with larger fiefs, often required to supply military

service in the form of a particular number of knights, would grant land feudally to

subordinates, becoming lords in their own right by having vassals. Thus “lord” and

“vassal” were relative terms.

Had this been an organized system, then this hierarchy of lord and vassal would

have been clear and efficient. But many nobles held lands from more than one lord, and

were thus feudally subordinate to them. It has been said that a man cannot serve two

masters, and when such a vassal’s lords were at odds with each other, a conflict certainly

arose with the duties of the vassal. Furthermore, the tendency for vague or confusing

subordinate relationships in the feudal system could lead to jurisdictional difficulties.

Borders were considerably more vague than those of the modern nation states. Outlying

principalities in a kingdom ostensibly belong to the king, but practically do so only if he

is strong enough to assert his ownership. The kings of England through the 12

century

were the feudal lords of many large provinces of France, such as Normandy, and

Aquitaine. Thus the king of England was both an independent king and a feudal vassal,

at least until King Phillip managed to wrestle most of them back.

Manorialism

Clearly, then, feudalism was not an organized system, if system it could be called.

It was built on an agricultural economy and a military class: the knights. But, had

manorialism – a system by which peasants congregate in villages under the protection of

a local lord – not been in place, feudalism would have been impossible (Stephenson

1941: 161).

The Middle Ages saw an economy totally dependent upon land and agriculture.

Successful agriculture required land and tools, along with draft animals to plow and till.

An average peasant family could not afford the tools and animals required. So, sensibly,

communes formed wherein draft animals, tools, and skills were shared. Each peasant

family still maintained its own portion of land in the village, and was dependent upon

what it produced (Stephenson 1941: 152).

A village of peasants was safer than a family on its own, but not very safe. Too

poor to purchase proper arms – swords, armor, lances, horses, shields, etc. - and

incapable of intensive training, due to time constraints, a village needed a protector.

Enter the manor lord.

By the 9

century, heavy mounted warriors were coming into play. These

warriors, who were destined to become the warrior class known as knights, required

economic support to provide for their expensive armaments, as well as support for a life

devoted to training in combat. This is especially true for mounted troops. Peasants

needed a warrior, and warriors needed support provided by a relatively large economic

base. Not to say that it came about so simply, but peasants and warriors found their

needs met in the other (Koch 1978: 31).

Manorialism, as it ultimately came about, was the relationship by which peasants,

in addition to providing for themselves by agricultural work, would also provide for a

local lord. This lord was responsible for caring for the peasants that supported him. The

peasants were responsible for farming and harvesting the lord’s lands, typically

interspersed with their own. They were also responsible for paying rent for their own

lands, or for the right to farm on land belonging to the lord. Most of the debt to the lord

was paid through labor, but some was often paid in kind, such as a trivial payment of

grain or eggs. The peasants must also pay for use of the mill and oven, which were also

owned by the manorial lord. There were also special payments that may have been

incurred based on location and custom: upon marriage, death and inheritance, or intention

to move from the village, peasants might be required to make some sort of payment. All

in all, these payments constituted the living and the income of the lord (Stephenson 1941:

154 – 156).

In return for these revenues, the lord was responsible for the well being of the

villagers. He was to protect them from harm, domestic and foreign. The lord, or a

servant acting in the lord’s name, would hear civil cases, try petty criminals, and

basically administer the law of the land, which was mostly set down by custom rather

than noble injunction (Stephenson 1941: 156).

War in the Middle Ages

As in any time period, the reasons behind the wars of the Middle Ages varied with

the wars. Wars were fought for property, for redress of violated rights, for ostensible

protection of innocents, and for many other myriad reasons. Great wars were called and

led by great authority figures – kings, popes, organizations of barons, etc. – but more

minor, local wars were often a threat to medieval peoples. These minor wars could be

called on a more local scale by lords whose superiors were too weak or too uninterested

to stop them. In the remnants of the Carolingian Empire, for example, the princes and

dukes waged war between themselves, with the kings unable to stop them.

Perhaps more interesting than who began the wars that plagued medieval Europe

may be who fought in them, how, and why. Knights are generally considered the

primary combatant of the Middle Ages, and this is for the most part true from the 11

century, when the class is clearly established, to about the late 14

century, when non-

nobles - such as squires - were equally well armed and trained, but less expensive.

Pre-Feudal Armies

Before the rise of feudalism, the armies of Europe were varied greatly. Saxon and

Frankish armies consisted of lightly armored foot soldiers, armed with swords, spears,

daggers, and shields. Mounted warriors wearing mail and using swords and spears were

prominent among the Ostrogoths and Lombards, but the use of cavalry was slow to catch

on among the Franks, though they were gradually incorporated from the 6

century

onward in the Frankish military (Warry 1980: 210). With feudalism not yet the rule,

many of the warriors in these armies were free men who had pledged loyalty to a ruler, as

per the old Germanic traditions.

The Carolingian Empire saw a rising dependence on cavalry. All notable people,

and their immediate servants were by this point used to mounted combat (Oman 1953:

18). The Carolingian Empire was bureaucratically and militarily dependent on the

support of the great dukes of the empire for the Emperor. They supplied personal armed

service, as well as armies of well-equipped foot soldiers (Oman 1953: 19).

Beginning of Feudal Armies

The dependence on subjects for military service was continued through the rise of

feudalism. Now, though, military service was given not simply as support for

government, but in return for land that provided livelihood. The equipment and armor of

a heavy cavalryman, who had grown to dominate the battlefield, had grown too

expensive for most to afford on their own, and it was the custom of the Middle Ages for

each fighting man to supply himself with arms and equipment. The grant of a fief

allowed a man to afford his expensive equipment and the time to train with it.

The early feudal times were rife with war. The Carolingian Empire had splintered

into petty principalities, each warring with one another. Other peoples, such as the

Magyars, still posed a threat to those in Europe. Furthermore, no universal code of

behavior had yet been imposed on the knights. As a member of the military elite, only a

strong superior or a rival could prevent an errant knight from doing as he wished. It was

not uncommon for knights to kill and rob as they wished. Even civil and criminal cases

were settled often with trial by arms (Gies 1984: 17).

The Christianization of the Knight

In response to this brutality, the church began to organize a reform, known as the

Gregorian Reform, to counter the violence. The first stage was the Peace of God, in 989

CE, which sought to “protect some of the people all of the time” (Gies 1984:18). The

Peace of God protected peasants, the church and church property, merchants, and similar

unarmed people and undefended places. In execution of this reform, clerics throughout

Europe would gather together all the nearby nobles, peasants, and knights, and convince

them to swear oaths on the dearest relics and holy items available to uphold the Peace of

God as described above.

By the early 11

century, the Truce of God reform began. Similar to the Peace of

God, it focused its attention on nobles and knights. It sought “to protect all of the people

some of the time” by forbidding military action on Sunday and holy days (Gies 1984:18,

19). When this was accepted with only minor grumbling, it was gradually expanded to

include Saturdays, Fridays, and Thursdays, all saints’ days, Lent, and Advent (Gies 1984:

19). Again, oaths were exacted from the nobles and knights to adhere to these guidelines.

It can be expected that the letter of these laws was not obeyed. Certainly, very

few wars were limited in engagement from Monday to Wednesday of weeks that did not

fall in holy times. Still, it was the spirit of the law that was important. The idea that the

carriers of arms are meant to respect the unarmed was being re-introduced to Europe.

From here the church could maneuver to forbid any Christian to hurt another Christian,

though this inducement was hardly listened to at all. But the church reformers were

building on an old concept that the world was divided into three types of people: the

warriors, the clergy, and those that worked to feed all. The ideas began to emerge that it

was in the best interest of the warriors to protect the peasants rather than ravage them.

Finally, when the dubbing ceremony became gradually more ceremonial, the church –

always interested in adopting ceremony – adopted knighthood. The final step towards

Christianizing knighthood was to introduce the concept of the Soldier of God, and send

the European knights east to Jerusalem as a holy expedition in 1095 (Gies 1984: 20-24).

Despite this Christianization of knights, some could still be quite brutal, as is evident in

the apparently remorseless slaughter and dismemberment of the inhabitants of Jerusalem

as it fell (Gies 1984: 43).

The Rise of Chivalry

In this we see the gradually forming image of the knight that is familiar: bold,

strong, well armed and mounted, and pious. The image that eludes us still is chivalry, the

code of conduct and courtly manners that evolved in southern France in the 12

century

(Strayer 1974: 134). Great romances were written, revering women and courtly, servile

rather than intimate love, sentiments that some conjecture diffused to the French from

Moorish Spain (Strayer 1974: 134). Great men were acclaimed in these tales. They were

bold, loyal, true hearted, strong and clever with arms, and generous with their wealth.

They revered noble women, rescued those in danger, and protected those that had no

means to protect themselves. To what extent the knights of the time lived up to these

expectations is likely limited. It was, after all, an ideal. But chivalric tones were

spreading, and the knights, now mostly nobles by the 13

century, were expected to be

well lettered, well bred, and courtly as well as a terror on the battle or tournament field

(Gies 1984: 50 –53).

The Knight’s Dangers

Some, though, have questioned the terror the knights themselves might have

experienced in battle and tournament, which was, in the early Middle Ages, not so

different from battle for a knight. The stout armor the knight wore was capable of

fending off great blows that would fell an unarmored man. Furthermore, the practice of

ransom, wherein a captured knight paid or arranged to have paid a large sum of money

for his release, encouraged the capture rather than the slaying of a knight. Maurice Keen,

though, cautions against too quickly assuming that these factors meant that knights were

truly relatively safe in battle. Disease was a constant threat, he says, and one that did not

consider class before killing. Furthermore, though it was generally the policy to take

knights captive, there are several cases in which prisoners were, for one reason or

another, killed rather than held. For instance, it was the practice of the Swiss to give no

mercy to captives (Keen 1999: 220-224).

The Development of Scutage

As mentioned, knights were generally nobles by the 13

century, usually tied

feudally to a lord. This nobility, and the construction of gradually more centralized

governments with more emphasis on law, meant that knights were more and more

becoming governors. In England, knights were an important part of the government as

early as 12

century. This reliance on knights in government discouraged the use of

them in war, so in the 12

century England adopted scutage, or shield tax, wherein

knights paid a sum of money instead of personally providing military service. This

money was used by the king in part to hire mercenary knights instead of depriving lands

of local rulers (Gies 1984: 99, 100).

Knights’ Changing Roles, and the Professionalization of the Army

By the late 13

century, the role of the knight was changing. War was not the

only knightly business, and war was no longer a business for primarily knights (Gies

1984: 105). It was, indeed, becoming a business. War was a good way for quick riches,

typically spoils taken from levies on captured towns, ransoms of captured knights, and

theft. The number of knights was declining, as cost of equipment, armor, and horses

increased and the economic stability of Europe declined. Potential knights often

remained squires, where they may be as highly trained, but could often have their

equipment provided for them, or at the very least be freed of the knightly obligation to

maintain at least three horses and equipment for a squire of their own (Gies 1984: 102) .

The 14

century brought the Hundred Years War, and with it, new ways of creating and

using armies. Early in the war, the French tried to use the established system of drawing

upon feudal relationships to obtain a number of heavy cavalry and footmen. The English

opted instead for an indentured army, one hired and paid in cash; a professional army. In

particular, bowmen were hired, the effect of which was the defeat of the French at the

battle of Crécy (Gies 1984: 146, 147).

The success of the indentured army quickly led to its adoption through much of

Europe. Heavy cavalry was still an important part of the armies, but now it included both

knights and squires. As mentioned above, squires were as heavily trained and armed as

knights at this point, and were as experienced in battle. The distinctions were primarily

social and economic, not military. Squires were preferred, as they could be paid half the

sum paid to a knight. Foot soldiers and archers, as always, were included in these armies,

but were paid soldiers rather than forced servants (Gies 1984: 150, 153). Furthermore,

the 15

century brought greater reliance on artillery, and with it, the commoner

specialists that operated them.

With relatively consistent war, and the established practice of professional armies,

it was a small conceptual step to create a professional standing army, as King Charles VII

of France first did in 1445. Cavalry and infantry were stationed in specified towns and

fortresses. Furthermore, a corps of reservists, called free-bowmen, was established.

These would stay in their homes, be trained and inspected, and be called if need be to

fight. In addition to these, the king kept a corps of royal artillerymen (Gies 1984: 196).

This, and the echeloned military structure of company, squadron, etc. established by the

Duke of Burgundy in 1473 formed a basis for the modern professional army (Gies 1984:

196).

Medieval Technology

Though the Middle Ages are largely perceived as a technologically primitive era,

the people of medieval Europe did significantly develop the technologies available to

them. Most of the technology available at the beginning of the Middle Ages was

incorporated from the late Roman Empire, which in turn had assimilated much of its

technology from conquered cultures. Also, many of the devices incorporated into

medieval technology were borrowed and adapted from other cultures, but medieval

Europe did much to assimilate those technologies and disseminate them on a large scale

to make them useful to the lives of those that lived there (Gies 1994: 17, 41).

Though significant technological progress is found in most industries and crafts,

such as carpentry, cloth preparations, masonry, etc., and especially agriculture, the

progress most interesting in the scope of this project is that related to power technology,

forge technology, and metallurgy.

Power Technology

Mechanization of a simple task not only alleviates so much human labor, but can

provide more power than human labor alone could have produced. So, the more

mechanized and powered a task is made, the more the product the system can process.

The key to this process in the Middle Ages was the waterwheel.

A waterwheel is a relatively simple device that uses the current of moving water

(or, with an overshot wheel, the weight of falling water) to spin a large wheel that is

connected mechanically to some system. The rotation of the wheel powers that system.

The Romans had poorly realized the potential of this power source, and used the

waterwheel primarily for milling grain. The undershot waterwheel worked by

positioning the bottom of a vertical wheel into a stream, so the moving water would push

the bottom of the wheel and set it spinning. It was 15% to 30% efficient at converting

waterpower to mechanical power. The overshot waterwheel, far more efficient (50% to

70%), required water to be channeled by a millrace or chute, which would bring the water

to the top of the wheel. The water fell into the top of the wheel at an angle, causing a

torque to turn the wheel. This arrangement required a high initial cost, since it involved

damming of the stream, the millrace, and an assembly of gears to transfer the power.

Thus, while it was known to the Romans, it was generally unused (Gies 1994: 35). A

horizontal waterwheel, typically immersed in the stream with the water partially diverted

from half of the wheel so that it would turn in the direction with the greatest flow, was

cheaper and more widely distributed throughout the Roman world, but it was less

efficient than the undershot waterwheel.

By the tenth century, the waterwheel was very highly valued in its capability to

processes that which had been farmed, such as wheat and other grains, and was thus

widely distributed (Gies 1994: 49). In the largely agrarian society, a device that is

capable of efficient production of useful foodstuff from raw crops is clearly an advantage.

It was soon to be held in even higher status. The vertical waterwheel was employed for

drainage in the underground mining endeavors of the 13

century and onward (Gies

1994: 168). It was applied to cloth production, especially to the process of fulling cloth.

The carpenter and the smith both made use of it by the 14

century, especially in use with

the blast furnace developed before 1350 and the trip hammer, both of which will be

discussed later (Gies 1994: 199-201).

The waterwheel provided power advantage to those with access to moving water.

Not all of Europe had such access. To meet power needs, other devices were created,

still working on the principle of using a moving medium to turn a wheel. The tidal mill,

dating back to at least seventh-century Ireland, utilized the tidal motion of bodies of

current-less water, such as harbors or lagoons. They were limited by the eccentric and

limited hours of operation, six to ten hours a day during times of fast tidal change (Gies

1994: 117). Another and more widely used alternative was wind power. The European

vertical windmill was independently developed in the last part of the twelfth century,

though other cultures had developed windmills previously. It featured a tall vertical

wheel, using a shield to divert wind from one half of the wheel. The wind incident on the

other half caused motion similar to that of the watermill. The wheel had to be able to

turn in order to face into the wind, so it was constructed on a stout pole capable of

rotation by laborers (Gies 1994:117). Both of these devices, though, were intended

primarily for grain milling.

Metallurgy

Iron was used throughout the Middle Ages in tools for many professions. Most

important were its uses in agriculture and arms. The former allowed more efficient

production of staple foods, while the latter provided strengthened military power.

Wrought iron was widely used for creation of these tools, along with arms and

armor (Gogan 1999: 28). It was malleable, ductile, and relatively resistant to atmospheric

corrosion. When iron was mined, it consisted of impure iron oxide in an ore. A long

process of purification commenced, first by breaking the ore and physically selecting the

reddish-brown iron oxide, then by roasting to remove sulfur, and finally by smelting.

During the smelting process, pieces of iron oxide, along with heavily carbonous

materials, such as charcoal, and another material known as a flux were placed together in

a bloomery hearth. The hearth was heated, assisted by a bellows. The carbon would

combine with the oxygen in the iron and rise off as carbon monoxide. The flux material

would gather other impurities, and would be poured off as slag. Remaining in the hearth

would be the bloom of iron, and the remains of the charcoal and slag. The iron would be

removed, and somewhat purified by heat and beating, though the final product contained

inclusions and alloys still. Finally, it could also be forged by beating, usually at high

temperatures.

The blast furnace greatly increased the rate of iron production in the Middle Ages.

It was definitely in use by 1350, and may have been in use earlier. Assisted by

waterpowered bellows, the blast furnace also incorporated a greatly improved

architecture, with a vertical chimney that first widened at an angle and then narrowed

more slowly. The intense heat of the blast furnace allowed carbon to combine rapidly

with the iron, forming an alloy of carbon and iron with a much reduced melting point

(Gies 1994: 201). This pig iron, or cast iron, could be cast into a mold for relatively

quick production of metal products, though this metal was brittle, and therefore not

suitable for arms production.

The pig iron could also be remelted in order to more efficiently produce wrought

iron of a higher purity than bloomery iron. The pig iron would be placed in a similar

furnace, a finery, with two bellows. One would supply oxygen for heating, the other

would supply oxygen to combine with the carbon to leave the pure wrought iron. Thus

wrought iron could be produced with less labor and cost (Gies 1994: 202).

Steel was harder than iron, which made it more desirable for production of

weapons. Steel is an alloy of carbon and iron, usually in a ratio of about 1.7% to 98.3%

respectively. The first European steels were merely surface deep, called blister steel or

carburized iron. To produce it, iron was strongly heated in contact with a high carbon

material, such as charcoal, in an atmosphere weak in oxygen. The surface of the iron

would become carburized, and thus would be stronger (Gogan 1999: 33,4). The

temperature required for this process to take place is called the transition temperature for

the steel. Blister steel was often used for cutlery and edged weapons when crucible steel

- more expensive, but higher quality – was unavailable or too expensive.

Crucible steel, rare if not non-existent in Medieval Europe, was produced by

taking wrought iron and placing it into a closed container with carbonaceous materials,

such as charcoal. The carbon could diffuse throughout the molten iron, allowing steel to

form uniformly (Gogan 1999:45).

Steel had the advantage that it could be further hardened by repeatedly heating,

beating, and quenching it. It was only the existence of the carbon in the metal that

allowed this, so pure iron could not be so hardened. In fact, the degree to which the

hardening was possible was proportional to the amount of carbon, up to a cutoff of 0.9%.

After this point, increased carbon content would not result in increased capacity for

hardness.

To harden steel, the steel piece was heated above the transition temperature and

allowed to remain for approximately one hour per inch of thickness. This allowed the

heat to permeate the material. Afterwards, the steel would be quickly quenched in a cool

material, such as room temperature water. The more quickly the metal was cooled, the

harder the steel could be made. The price was brittleness; the harder the steel was made,

the more brittle it would become.

To combat this phenomenon, smiths tempered the steel. It was again heated, but

at a temperature below the transition temperature. Then the steel was allowed to cool

slowly, for example by sitting in room-temperature air. Through this method, brittleness

was decreased while retaining hardness.

If the smith wished to soften the steel, perhaps to cut it, then a process similar to

hardening called annealing was used. To anneal the steel, it would be heated to a

temperature higher than the transition temperature, again for about one hour per inch of

thickness. Afterwards, the steel would be cooled slowly, perhaps in room temperature

air. When cooled, the steel would be soft compared to recently forged steel (Gogan

1999: 109, 110).

The quality of the steel produced in some areas was superior to that produced

elsewhere due, at times, to elements native to the ore or smelting materials. For example,

Toledo steel included manganese, nickel, and tungsten. This made the steel naturally

stronger, and therefore helped Toledo become a major armoring location. Milan and

Nuremberg were also major armoring centers in the Middle Ages, and it may be that the

ore deposits in these locations also had favorable inclusions (Gogan 1999: 60).

Mining

The Roman Empire had a well-developed mining technique. Slave labor applied

iron tools, such as hammer, pick, chisel, and wedge to the walls of the mine. As they

dug, pillars were left to support the mine and prevent collapse (Gies 1994: 24). Though

mining operations declined with the fall of Rome, the mining techniques were not lost,

and were available when medieval mining operations began to pick up in the eighth

century (Gies 1994: 40). At first, much of the mining in the Middle Ages was small-

scale, local mining using an open-pit technique (Gies 1994:62). By the twelfth century,

the demand for iron necessitated larger mining production. Since slave labor was no

longer widely used, the work fell to peasant workers. Similar to the agricultural system,

workers would cooperate in labor in order to share a portion of the ore, which could then

be used or sold to those that would use it (Gies 1994: 129). Production was further

increased with the introduction of the wheelbarrow in the 14

of 15

century (Gies 1994:

168).

Guilds

The guild structure, a familiar feature of cities in the Middle Ages, was first

developed by Italian merchants in the tenth century (Gies 1994: 121). By the twelfth

century, guilds of craftsmen were forming. Each guild was specialized in its

memberships: carpenters banded together, as did cobblers, as did fabric makers, each into

a guild. The guilds were structured into a hierarchy: apprentices, journeymen, and

masters. Apprentices worked under the guidance of a master craftsmen, learning the

trade and providing menial labor. Journeymen were sufficiently advanced to hire their

services to masters. The rank of master was conferred to a craftsman after those in the

guild were convinced of his capability, demonstrated by a masterpiece the craftsman

created. The rank of master entitled him to run his own shop as a full member of the

guild.

Guilds functioned to protect its members from foreign competition, and to supply

mutual aid amongst its members. They also set guidelines for price, quality, wages, and

working hours for their members. They were undeniably oligarchies, but initially they

were reasonable and primarily concerned with protection of the membership, not with

fleecing the population through unfair pricing and practices, though in time some guilds

did (Gies 1994: 124).

Armor of the Middle Ages

Introduction

Warfare was endemic throughout the middle ages, offering ongoing incentive and

opportunity for the development of military technology. Along with technology designed

for increased offensive power, technicians of the middle ages sought defensive

technologies for those that went to war.

Medieval armor, though broadly varied throughout the period and especially so

during the 15

century, was generally constructed out of some of a handful of materials.

So-called soft armors were made quilted fabrics or leather, possibly studded with metal.

Harder armor was constructed of cuir-bouilli – leather hardened by dipping in wax –

horn, baleen, and, of course, metal. Hard armors came in a variety of constructions.

Intertwined rings of metal was known as mail, and was almost the universal defense

material until 1250 or so; thereafter it is was very gradually replaced with plate, although

it continued to be used throughout the duration of the middle ages. Lamellar

construction, wherein plates of metal were laced to one another, allowed greater

protection against the force of the blow while still allowing freedom of movement.

Lamellar construction was most prominent in Eastern Europe, though the Scandinavians

made use of it until the early 14

century; after the 15

century it became rare in the

west. Similarly, scale construction consisted of small overlapping plates, and was used

throughout Europe during the period; it was particularly used in the east. The coat-of-

plates design consists of metal plates riveted to a fabric or leather covering, again

allowing flexibility and solid defense. Though it was likely available throughout the

period, it was most commonly used from the very end of the 13

century through the 14

and into the early 15

century.

Solid plate defenses were first used for the head, a use that harkens far into the

past before the medieval era. Aside from helmets, the first solid plate armor that emerged

during the middle ages (specifically, in the mid-1200s) was for the protection of the legs,

which were the most vulnerable area of a mounted warrior facing opponents who were on

foot. Plate knee defenses known as poleyns were the first to come into common use.

Plate arm defenses came shortly after the solid leg defenses. Armor made of large metal

plate emerged slowly during the 13

century, and gradually became dominant by the late

century. Clearly, all armor needed to flex at the joints of the human body, so plate

armor developed articulations to allow freedom of movement along with its powerful

protection. It is possible that the development of plate body defense was contemporary

with the plate protection of the extremities, but this is uncertain due to period illustrations

of armor being obscured by the surcoat. The coat-of-plates design becomes the

prominent body defense by the end of the 13

century, though mail is still worn beneath.

During the 14

century complete arm armor sets emerge, with each piece integrated into

the whole and generally riveted together in many places. Leg armor follows suit shortly.

Independent breastplates evidently emerge by the beginning of the 15

century, and

thereafter there is significant specialization in armor produced by the two major armoring

centers, Germany and Italy.

The following sections give a more detailed chronological treatment of the

development of armor for the body, head, legs, and arms, respectively, and finally

shields. The subsequent section gives a short description of the regional differences,

particularly those during the 15

century. Finally, the last section gives chronologically

organized examples of up-to-date armor ensembles.

The issue of terminology must be remarked upon. A particular item might be

known by a number of names that could vary geographically as well as chronologically.

Some devices apparently went by several names in one area and time; these names often

each individually meant variations of the device later during their lifetimes. This

document will simplify this by referring to each device by one name, often based upon

Claude Blair’s terminology.

Armor for the Body

Pre-13

century

Mail was used throughout the early middle ages as the dominant form of armor.

It probably was developed by the Celts, and by the 3

century BCE, it was widely used

throughout Europe (Edge 1988: 9). It was used during the Classical period, though forms

of plate armor were more prominent at the height of the Roman Empire. With the fall of

the Empire, plate technology fell into general disuse except for head protection, even

though Roman armor factories were initially still intact for use by the Germanic tribes

that took the lands on which they stood.

Figure 2: A 15th- 16th
Century Mail Hauberk.
HAM # 3927

European mail is constructed of rings of two types:

riveted or solid circles. The riveted rings are used to

connect rings together, as solid rings would be impossible

to inter-link. In some cases, mail was made up of only

riveted rings (Blair 1959: 20). In others, riveted and solid

rings are alternated by rows or individually, such that each

riveted ring is joined to four solid rings.

The rings were made by first taking sheets of metal and cutting long strips from it.

These strips were, at first, beaten into wire tediously. Later, the strips were pulled

through successively smaller dies until the proper gauge of wire was obtained. In both

cases, once the wire was formed, it was wrapped around a rounded stick. Hammer and

chisel were used to cut along the edge, turning the spiral into a series of open rings, the

ends of which were beaten flat and pierced. When they were closed, a rivet was inserted

through the pierce holes and then pinched or hammered flat (ffoulkes 1912: 44, 45).

By the 8

century, the typical body protection was a

long shirt of mail known as a hauberk. During this time, it

was customarily of knee-length, with slits in the front and

back from groin to hem to allow the wearer to mount a horse.

The sleeves were short, coming only as far as the elbow.

This hauberk was pulled on over the head. A coat-of-plates

design – a type of construction in which plates of metal were riveted to a fabric covering

– was also in use, but not nearly as common (Edge 1988: 9).

Figure 1: Interlocking
rings of mail. HAM No. #
498

As late as the 11

century, the hauberk changed little from that described above.

The sleeves lengthened slightly, reaching past the elbow to mid-forearm. They would

lengthen more by the end of the 12

century, reaching the ends of the arms and forming

mail mittens called mufflers. A mail coif – essentially a hood – had in the meantime

become directly attached to the hauberk. Otherwise, the hauberk was still knee-length

and split from hem to groin for ease in mounting a horse (Blair 1959: 23). This type of

hauberk weighed about 30 pounds (Edge 1988: 19). A belt was worn to distribute this

weight beyond the shoulders, and to generally keep the hauberk in place.

During the mid-1100s the surcoat apparently emerged. This was a loosely fitting,

long garment that hung on the body over the armor. At this stage, it did not contribute to

the defense of the body, and there is some speculation as to what, precisely, its purpose

was. Some have suggested that it served as protection from the sun, which could heat

exposed metal and make it unbearably and even dangerously hot. It is unlikely that it

emerged to display identification or heraldic symbols, as it is rare to see illustrations

bearing such marks until the early 1300s (Blair 1959: 28).

Quilted garments were often worn with the armor, or without the hard armor and

used as an independent defense. A number of terms – aketon, gambeson, and pourpoint –

were all used to denote quilted garments involved in defense. Generally, although not

universally, pourpoint is used as a general term, referring to any quilted defense. Aketon

was used to describe the quilted coat defense usually worn under the armor. Gambesons

were usually made from expensive materials and decorated.

Though likely worn earlier, the first sufficient evidence of use of the aketon

comes in the second half of the 12

century. The 13

century aketon, as worn

independently by foot soldiers, was knee-length and quilted vertically. The bottom edges

were straight or dagged. The sleeves were either tightly fitting and long to the wrists,

occasionally with quilted mufflers, or loose and ending just above the elbow. Like the

lower edge, the sleeve edges were straight or dagged. It is likely that the long-sleeved

version was the very similar to the aketon worn under the armor of those that had it (Blair

1959: 32 – 34).

The first instance of a rigid body defense during the middle ages is the curie or

cuirass. It was made of leather, likely cuir-bouilli, and emerged during the third quarter

of the 12

century. It is likely that it was made of two pieces, one for the front and one

for the back, strapped over the shoulders and around the sides like the later cuirass of

metal that would follow in the centuries to come. It was worn under the surcoat and over

the hauberk (Blair 1959: 38).

century

The first sure evidence of large plate defense comes from Guillaume le Breton’s

description of a duel between Richard Count of Poitou and William de Barres. Each was

described as wearing a plate of worked iron underneath the hauberk and aketon. Le

Breton died in 1225 C.E., indicating a maximum date for this early use of the plate chest

defense (Blair 1959: 36, 37). The lack of further accounts of plate use at this early date

suggests that it was rare.

The true and constant development of plate defenses begins near 1250 C.E, as can

be seen by the development of poleyns and couters. Blair suggests that the development

of plate body armor was contemporary with the development of plate limb defense.

Evidence for this is obfuscated, however, since period illustrations typically include a

surcoat, which was worn over the armor.

However, it is known that this surcoat also provided bodily protection. Long,

vertical rectangular plates were riveted in rows within the trunk of the surcoat. At least

one illustration for the second half of the 13

century, as well as early 14

century

artifacts from Italy and Scandinavia, provides examples of this defense (Blair 1959: 39).

Another form of the reinforced surcoat was evidently in use. It was like a poncho

in form. The front portion held wide flaps extending from hip to armpit that were

wrapped back around the body to overlap with the back portion. Rivets held oblong

metal plates to the front, nearly up to the neck (Blair 1959: 39, 40). The mail coif

appears to be attached to the surcoat, though it is separate from the hauberk.

Century

The largest change in mail defenses after 1250 is the growing infrequency of them

being the sole defense. By 1330, it is rare to find illustrations of knights entirely or

nearly entirely suited in mail. Still, it forms the basis of defense, and did undergo some

design changes. The coif, once made in one piece with the hauberk, was separate by the

second half of the 13

century. The introduction of plate gauntlets made the mufflers of

the hauberks more rare, especially after 1330. A hauberk sans mufflers had tight wrist-

length sleeves or, especially after 1325, wide sleeves extending to the mid-forearm (Blair

1959: 46, 47). During the early 14

century, a standing collar of thick mail becomes part

of the hauberk, and later becomes a separate piece called a pizaine or standard. The

1320s brought a shorter hauberk called a haubergeon (Blair 1959: 47). Both the

hauberk and haubergeon were used throughout the 14

century and 15

century, though

by the second quarter of the 15

century it became more rare for an entire hauberk or

haubergeon to be worn under the plate armor. Instead, mail skirts, collars and gussets –

fillers for joints, in this case attached by points to the garment under the armor (the

aketon) – were used for shoring up the defense provided by plate (Blair 1959: 73).

The most popular body defense throughout the 14

century is now known as a coat-of-plates, wherein metal

plates line a short cloth or leather coat. In on design, vertical

lames line the mid-abdomen and the waist at the sides.

Horizontal lames line the stomach area. From the 1290s the

coat-of-plates became more prominent; by the 1320s it was

nearly in universal use. It was normally worn under the

surcoat and over the hauberk (Blair 1959: 40). By the mid 14

century, the lower

abdominal portion of some of the coat-of-plates was constructed of horizontal metal

hoops rather than vertical plates (Blair 1959:56).

Other forms of the coat-of-plates were in use, in which the front and back

defenses were separate, but joined over the shoulders. They were then laced up the sides.

Some came connected at one side or one side and one shoulder, leaving the rest to be

laced, strapped, and buckled. Vertical metal plates are along both portions, even

extending slightly into the sides. Some had small plates over the shoulders. In some

forms the armholes are bordered by scales (Blair 1959: 56).

Brigandine armor developed in the latter half of the 1300s in Italy and was still

generally used throughout Europe two and a half centuries later. Brigandine is a coat-of-

Figure 3: Inside view of
a coat-of-plates

plates design in which the lames, which are small, are made to work over one another,

providing great flexibility (Blair 1959: 59).

By the 1340s rudimentary breastplates were beginning to develop, though they

were still part of the physical coat-of-plates. Until the 1360s these rounded, globular

breastplates extended only as far as the diaphragm. Below this, horizontal hoops were

still in use. The bottom edge gradually extends to the waist, relegating the metal hoops,

still riveted to a garment, into a protective skirt known as a fauld. The rounded

breastplate remained in use well into the 1400s. However, by the 1370s a less rounded

form gained popularity. This new form had a clear medial ridge centered vertically on

the chest (Blair 1959: 57, 58).

The first sign of a breastplate independent of the coat-of-plates occurs in the

second quarter of the 14

century in the inventory of King Edward III. The first clear

illustration (~1370’s) is one of a flat reinforcing breastplate with rounded edges

extending from neck to waist worn over a coat-of-plates (Blair 1959: 60). Within a few

years, another illustration bears an independent and fully developed breastplate that

extends from neck to waist and around the sides. It is shaped to the armpits. It was worn

over a simple (i.e. non-reinforced) jupon. By the 1380s the breastplate was generally

worn without the coat-of-plates. It was by this point generally rounded and occasionally

bore a medial ridge, which was favored into the 15

century (Blair 1959: 60).

In Germany a different style was favored between 1380 and 1420. This

breastplate was short and globular; occasionally it was fluted vertically. Sometimes this

was attached to a laminar or scaled fauld.

An early white breastplate (white armor is the term used for metal not attached to

a fabric cover) dates from 1380 – 1390. Before this, armor was nearly always covered

with a fabric lining, even when not necessary as it was in a coat-of-plates design. This

early breastplate is made of nine plates – one large, central, globular plate and four plates

of decreasing size on either side. The smaller plates wrap around the sides towards, but

not around, the back. The lower edge of this arrangement extends to the waist. Straps

secured the piece over the shoulders and around the back. Two features of latter

breastplates are first found on this artifact. The first is a stop-rib, a V-shaped bar just

below the neck that prevents a weapon sliding up the body and into the neck. The second

feature is a lance-rest, which becomes common only after 1420 (Blair 1959:61).

By the later half of the 14

century, the surcoat had, in many places in Europe,

become shorter. The jupon, also called coat-armor, seems to be a cross between the

surcoat and the gambeson, and emerged from the short surcoats of 14

century England.

The jupon was generally a short, tight, and probably quilted or padded garment that

usually had no sleeves. However, Exceptions exist to many of these descriptors. There

are surviving examples of jupons that extend down to the knees or have long sleeves.

The jupon was usually decorated, and remained so until it fell out of fashion by the third

quarter of the 15

century (Blair 1959: 74, 75, 78).

Century

Another early white breastplate dates from 1400. It is made from one globular

piece that extends from neck to waist. It presents a stop-rib as well. The edges of the

piece are turned over, rolled slightly to strengthen them (Blair 1959: 61).

It is more difficult to gauge the development of the backplate. Blair suggests that

backplate development is similar to the evolution of the breastplate from the coat-of-

plates. It is likely that solid backplates were in use by the first decade of the 15

century.

After 1420, the most common form of body protection was a one-piece backplate

strapped to a breastplate at the sides and shoulders, joined by a laminated skirt (Blair

1959: 61).

As white armor grew into general use, Germany and

Northern Italy, already prominent producers of armor by

the end of the 1200s, grew as the dominant centers of armor

design and production for much of Europe. Though local

variations exist, the fundamental styles of armor were those

created in Germany and Italy.

By the 1410s, Italian body armor finished its evolution of style with the creation

of homogeneous sets of armor. The earliest homogenous set of armor, Italian or

otherwise, consists of a breastplate extending to a straight edge at the waist. A shallow

plackart (lower breastplate) overlaps this, extending into a point towards the center of the

chest. A fauld of 3 horizontal, vertically overlapping lames hangs from the plackart. The

backplate, similarly, held an overlapping lower-backplate which held a culet (skirt on the

back) of one to three lames. The fore and back defenses were strapped together at the

shoulders and waist (Blair 1959: 80). This armor also consists of late 14

century style

vambraces, hour-glass gauntlets with some variation, and late 14

century style cuisses

and greaves (Blair 1959: 80, 81).

Figure 4: An Italian
plackart and fauld – last
quarter of the 15th
Century. HAM # 3127.9

During the 1420s German body armor developed into the Kastenbrust design, in

which the upper portion of the breastplate was sloped outwards from the body. The

lower third or so sloped back in to meet at the waist. Vertical or radial fluting can often

be found on this sort of armor until 1450. A stop-rib typically accentuated the neck, and

a hinged lance-rest could be found on the side.

By the 1430s this German breastplate was joined by a one-piece backplate, a

hooped fauld, and a hooped culet. The lowest lame of the fauld was arched upwards or,

sometimes, replaced by a pair of tassets (Blair 1959: 93).

A probable midpoint between the previous body defense and the type that would

be popular in Germany after 1450 originates in 1438. This Kastenbrust carried several

narrow, articulated lames near the diaphragm (Blair 1959: 92).

Gradually throughout the 15

century, the Italian cuirass emerged from the

tendency of the breast- and backplate to be worn with a forked fauld. The central points

of the fauld lames gradually rise higher through the development. By the 1430s, the

bottom lame of the fauld was replaced by two lames called tassets, one over either thigh.

Accompanying these was a single long lame added to the culet, called the rump-guard.

Through the rest of the first half of the 15

century, the tassets grew longer and tapered,

until by 1450 they were roughly triangular. Smaller tassets were also used post-1440 at

the sides, in addition to the main tassets. Occasionally, these smaller tassets were used

instead of the rump-guard (Blair 1959: 81).

By 1425, front and back pairs – backplate and breastplate, fauld and culet,

plackart and lower-backplate – were hinged upon the left side and buckled down the right

side. The central points of the plackart and lower-backplate became higher by this point,

and are now held to the main plates by a single strap and buckle each (Blair 1959: 82).

After 1440, the lower portion of the upper-backplate was constructed by three

pieces, each of which curved upward into a point up towards the neck in the middle.

These points lengthened until fifteen years later the point of the topmost lame reached the

neck. The plackart developed in the same way over the same period. When the point of

the topmost lame in the plackart reached the neck, also around 1455, the stop-rib at the

neck was removed. After this, the plackart gradually widened, covering more of the

breastplate until, around 1490, it nearly completely overlapped it. Afterwards, perhaps

disapproving redundancy, armorers returned to the rounded breastplate sans plackart,

with the fauld attached directly to the bottom of the breastplate. However, sometimes

additional plackarts or reinforcing breastplates were separately added to the ensemble

(Blair 1959: 82).

After the 1440s, the pronounced boxing of the Kastenbrust breastplate decreases,

and the breastplate becomes flatter, though still with a medial ridge. The post-1450 body

defense ends in both the backplate and breastplate above the

waist. One broad lame in front and one broad lame in back,

articulated to the upper body defenses on sliding rivets, were

riveted to the fauld and culet, respectively (Blair 1959:92).

During the 1450s a new type of breastplate, much like

a cuirass, emerges and gradually replaces the Kastenbrust in

Germany. It was similar to the Italian form, with a plackart

Figure 5: Italian Made
Infantry Breastplate in
the German Style. Circa
1480. HAM # 2001.02

protecting the lower abdomen. This plackart was articulated to the breastplate on a

sliding rivet (Blair 1959: 93).

The Gothic armor style emerged in the 1460s in Germany and would remain in

fashion until the end of the century. The Gothic form was slimmer and more elongated

than the preceding forms. Rippled fluting is a characteristic of the Gothic-style armor.

The cuirass becomes slimmer at the waist. The fauld and culet both shrink to just below

the hips and become more pointed and angular. The fauld often carried tassets similar to

the Italian manner. A plackart, sometimes of two overlapping lames, was often worn.

This plackart carried the fauld. A lame on the back of the waist served as a lower

backplate and onto this was attached to the culet (Blair 1959 94, 95).

One-piece breastplates and backplates were under construction in southern

Germany by 1490. These were flanged at the lower edges for the attachment of the fauld

and culet. Soon movable armhole gussets – small, articulated lames filling the gaps in

the joints - and tassets formed of several overlapping lames joined this style, which was

generally used “almost as long as armour was worn” (Blair 1959: 95).

A backplate of three plates was used between 1490 and 1510. The main plate,

covering the back from neck to waist, was approximately pentagonal in shape. To either

side a plate was attached and hinged to protect the sides (Blair 1959: 96).

In the 1430s the gorget appears to have emerged in German armor design. This

neck guard consists of two plates, front and back, which cup the lower neck and upper

shoulders. Upon this a few lames are riveted to front and back to build up protection

along the neck. At the end of the century, the tops of the gorget are turned to fit a hollow

rim in the helmet, allowing turning motion of the head. It was customary for the gorget

to help support the armor. It was often worn under the cuirass to distribute its weight,

and during the 16

century support the pauldrons (see below) by straps. The gorget does

not seem to have caught on in Italy until the 16

century (Blair 1959: 96).

Armor for the Head

Pre-13

Century

The favored armored headwear of the early middle ages descended directly from

the Roman Empire. These rounded or conical helmets were constructed after a fashion

now called Spangenhelm, assembled from multiple pieces. Initially, the helmets were

made in three pieces: two halves and a central arched comb. Later, a circular band

around the brow and a crosswork of arching ribs supported plates in the interior. They

sometimes sported features common in Roman helmets, such as hinged plates that

covered the cheeks and nasals, bars that hung from the brow to protect the nose (Edge

1988: 8). The framework and fillings were sometimes of different materials; e.g. one

might have a bronze framework with iron sheets.

During the time of the Norman Invasion, as

depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry (late 11

century), it

was customary for soldiers to wear conical helmets on

top of the mail coif, a hood made of interconnected

rings that was often, at this point, a part of the hauberk,

as it would generally be until the latter half of the

1200s. These helmets have a nasal and were mostly constructed in the Spangenhelm

fashion. Some few of the helmets of this time, however, were made of single sheets of

metal, often with the nasal later attached (Blair 1959: 25). The conical helmets, along

Figure 6:Conical helmet made
in Spangenhelm fashion.

with the other armor depicted in the Tapestry, was used throughout Europe through the

second half of the 12

century (Blair 1959: 29).

The coif of this period was worn with a band around the head above the brow to

keep it in place. By the late 11

century, the coif was fitted with a ventail – a flap of mail

that could be drawn across the mouth and laced on the side of the head. This provided

some protection to the lower face (Blair 1959: 27).

After 1150 C.E., a slightly different helmet gained popularity. It was similar to

the conical helmet, except that the head was rounded. This helmet also carried a nasal

(Blair 1959: 29). Another variation, in use

after 1180, was cylindrical, with a flat top.

Both were used until 1250.

The kettle-hat, a broad-brimmed

metal hat for head defense, seems to have

not been in use before the end of the 12

century, despite the fact that a very similar Romanesque head defense continued to

appear in medieval artwork as late as the second half of the 11

century. The hat was

constructed after the fashion of the Spangenhelm. A framework for the skull was created

from a cross-shaped piece bent over the round of the head. Between each arm a rounded

plate was riveted. The broad brim was then riveted to the bottom edges. A lining was

stitched inside and a chinstrap was attached to hooks on the brim. Generally, the kettle-

hat was a defense for the common soldier. However, it was in use amongst the knightly

classes (Blair 1959: 32).

Century

Figure 7: A kettle-hat

By 1220, the cervellière (also called a bascinet, a term I will save for a different

device) became the most popular choice for head protection. The cervellière was a

deeply rounded skullcap, often worn under the coif, especially after 1250 (Blair 1959:

30). It remained in use into the early 15

century, though the bascinet began to replace it

after 1300.

The helm, a cylindrical headpiece completely covering the neck and face as well

as the head, was in use by 1220. It evolved from the practice of adding full face guards,

complete with ventilation holes, as well as short neck guards to the conical, cylindrical,

and rounded helmets described above. With time the face guard and neck guard had met,

creating a cylindrical protection completely around the head. By the beginning of the

century, the flat-topped cylinder was by far the most prominent helm form. A long

eye slit allowed for vision (Blair 1959: 30). The helm was worn over the coif. In

addition to its own lining, an arming cap – quilted fabric over the head and ears with

laces that tied under the chin – helped prevent irritation from the coif and helm. The

helm was secured with laces under the chin. After 1250, the upper portion of the helm

inclined inwards (Blair 1959: 47). It become shaped much like a truncated cone by the

last quarter of the 13

century, though sometimes the apex was rounded rather than flat.

The bottom of the helm deepened to touch the shoulders at the sides and come over the

very top of the chest at the front. By the turn of the 14

century, a movable visor guarded

the upper face. It could be lifted when not in use. Concurrently, a pivoted reinforcing-

bevor overlapped the face-guard below the visor (Blair 1959: 48). However, despite the

developments, the helm was used sparingly on the battlefield through the 14

century. It

was more often used in tourney than war at this date.

By the mid 13

century, an arming cap was worn with the coif (often over, but

sometimes underneath), probably to support the weight of the helm. The arming cap was

a quilted fabric skullcap with flaps that covered the ears and cheeks and tied beneath the

chin. Around the brow the skullcap was quite thick, perhaps to distribute the weight of

the head protection under which it was worn (Blair 1959: 34)

Century

After 1320 the skull of the kettle-hat is long and pointed, not dissimilar to the

bascinet below. At about this time the kettle-hat is more commonly constructed from one

or a few larger metal plates; the Spangenhelm construction is discarded.

By 1300 the helmet was being increasingly worn on top of the coif, though the

cervellière and low bascinet (see below) were still worn underneath occasionally; the

former until the 1330s. By 1260 the coif was

occasionally supplanted by an aventail (tippet). The

aventail was much like a coif separate from the hauberk,

but with the top removed. Instead of a mail top, the

aventail was attached to the inside of the helmet. Thus it

was much like a mail curtain for face, neck, and upper-shoulder protection. The aventail,

of course, became more popular as it became customary to wear the helmet above the

mail.

The bascinet appears to have been in general use since 1300 or so. There are

three varieties. The first, the shortest form, is small and globular. The sides are deep

enough to cover the ears, though by 1325 the sides extend yet further down the face to the

base of the neck. Occasionally it was worn with a movable visor, either of the full-face

Figure 8: A short bascinet

variety extending even over the chin, or of a smaller variety that covers the center of the

face that would be unprotected by a coif (Blair 1959: 51). It was sometimes worn under

the coif.

A second form is deep and conical. The sides and back extend to the shoulders.

Usually, a nasal or a moveable visor protects the face. With a visor down, this form of

the bascinet is very familiar if not nearly indistinguishable from the visored helm (Blair

1959: 51). By 1330, the sides begin to draw inwards to partially cover the cheeks.

The final form is similar to the conical helmet described above. The rim comes

only to the tops of the ears (Blair 1959: 51). This was also occasionally worn under the

coif, but more rarely than the short bascinet. After 1330, the sides extended over the ears

and the back reached to the neck.

During the last quarter of the 1300s the apex of the bascinet gradually moved

backwards in the skull, until the back edge was barely tapered by the early 1400s. By the

1330s almost all bascinets were built with aventails; the aventails were attached to leather

linings that were in turn laced to staples on the edges of the bascinet. The aventail

covered most of the face, leaving only the nose, mouth, and eyes bare. The lower edges

of the aventail hung in a small capelet nearly to the shoulders (Blair 1959: 68). Some

bascinets supplemented the aventail with reinforcing plate bevors to protect the lower

face, chin, and neck. Through much of the 14

century in much of Europe, the bascinet

had a visor for face protection, as well. Generally this was the case unless a helm was

worn over the bascinet. However, in Germany and Italy between 1340 and 1370, a

padded metal nasal attached to the aventail and hooked to the brow of the bascinet served

(perhaps barely) as protection for the face. The plate bevor gradually expanded and

replaced the aventail. By 1400 the bevor began

to be riveted permanently to the bascinet,

creating a form called the great bascinet (Blair

1959: 70).

Germany, during the 1360s, developed a

novel visor now known as a Klappvisier. This

visor was attached by hinges at the center of its

upper edge to a bar studded to the head of the

bascinet. By 1380, both the Klappvisier and the form of visor rotating from each side of

the head filled the open area of the bascinet at the face, while at the same time each began

to protrude in the center forming a snout-like appearance, causing bascinets equipped

with them to be called “pig-faced bascinets” (though the protrusions are generally pointed

rather than flat). The visors sported eye slits and ventilation holes (Blair 1959: 68, 69).

The common use of visors coincides with the popular use of crests on top of the

helmet, probably to make the wearer distinctive and more readily identifiable. Crests are

first reintroduced in the 12

century, but seldom appear in contemporary illustrations

until the 13

century. Thereafter, it is only in the 14

century that they see common

application. Crests employed a number of devices including fan shaped plumes,

pennons, and figures of animals. It was also common for knights to wear gold or silver

crowns called circles to indicate their rank (Blair 1959: 31).

Century

The German great bascinet, in use by 1420 and common by 1430, was somewhat

smaller and fit more closely to the head and neck than the form popular to the rest of

Figure 9: Bascinet with klappvisier and
aventail. 14

century style. HAM

#938.a

Europe during the same time. The back of the skull extends into a gorget plate, either in

one piece or in two pieces riveted together. On the front, another gorget plate is hinged

for ease in putting on the bascinet. A bevor, sometimes attached to the front gorget,

covers the face to the nose. A pivot visor protected the upper face (Blair 1959: 102).

Between 1380 and 1420, the tall bascinet with visor was the superlatively popular

head defense through most of Europe. After 1420, the great bascinet reigned most

popular until it became more for tournament use past 1450.

The sallet (celata) was one of the three most

common forms of head protection during 15

century

Italy. A first sign of the celata comes in 1407, but it is

obscure and difficult to trace. Things become easier by

the 1430s, but both celata and barbuta (barbut in

England) are terms both used to describe two similar

helmets. Both have long sides and back, which reach

to the shoulders. The back curves to the nape of the

neck and has a tail at the back formed from an extension of keel-shaped comb from the

top. Both also have a rounded head. The difference is in the face opening. In one there

is an open arch, though it sometimes narrows at the bottom under the chin. The other has

a T shaped opening, with the upper arms extending to the eyes and the stem opening for

the mouth and nose. Later, the upper arms of the T are formed by upward-angled ovals

rather than perpendicular bars. In both cases, the T is bordered by metal additions much

like stop-ribs. The T faced sallet seems to disappear by 1470, whereas the open sallet

remains in use until the end of the century (Blair 1959: 85).

Figure 10: A barbut

Two more versions of the sallet emerge in Italy by the end of the century. By

1480, a form emerges with a shallower skull and longer tail, now made of several riveted

plates. A reinforcing plate strengthens the brow. This form was used into the 16

century. The second form comes in the 1490s. A pivoted visor, deep enough to cover the

chin, is added. Horizontal fluting provided decoration. In this form, the sight is formed

by a slit between the visor and the face opening of the helmet. This form was used into

the 16

century as well (Blair 1959: 86).

During the first half of the 15

century, the

Germans were primarily using two head defenses: an

open (though sometimes visored) French sallet with a

medium tail with a bevor, and a German kettle-hat with

low brim that had slits for vision. This latter also was

accompanied with a bevor. After the 1450s, this kettle-

hat evolved a short sallet-like tail and by 1470

combined with the western European kettle-hat into the “sou’wester” style of German

sallet. It had a downward sloping tail and was rather larger than the western European

kettle-hat. There were two prominent forms: one with a upper-face visor with the eye slit

formed between the visor and the brow, and a one-piece head defense comprising both

face and head protection. Some had full visors, covering the whole of the face. After

1480, the tail became sometimes laminated (Blair 1959: 106).

The kettle-hat maintained its popularity through Germany and most of Europe

during the 15

century, but it was not as popular in Italy. The German kettle hat of the

Figure 11: Sallet Helmet.
Southern Germany 1480s.
HAM # 2608.a

century was formed of one piece. The crown was cylindrical with a flat or bell

shaped top. The brim was turned downward all along the edge.

One distinctive form of the kettle hat that emerged in the 15

century is known as

the cabacete in Spain, where it was popular. The head was almond shaped, with a fin

along the top. The brim sloped downwards with a slight outward curve. A deep bevor

covered much of the face, and extended down in a gorget plate that pointed into a V

shape to the center of the chest (Blair 1959: 110).

In the 1490s, Germany saw the emergence of two new sallet forms. The first was

a cheap and rough form used by the sub-knightly soldiers. The skull is flatter than the

common sallet, and the tail extension is straighter, conforming less to the head. The

surface is usually unfinished (giving this sallet the name “black sallet”), or painted or

covered. It was apparently not polished (Blair 1959: 106, 107).

The second form appears very similar to the Italian from of the visored sallet, and

is probably related. A short laminated tail protrudes from a skull shaped to the head. The

visor is full, covering below the chin, and is worn without a bevor (Blair 1959: 107).

The armet, as the term applies now, is a headpiece closed by hinged pieces that

extend over the cheeks and under the chin. It was probably evolved from the bascinet,

and was developed by the 1410s. Typically, in the Italian form, the skull has its lower

edge on the sides leveled just above the ears. The back extends to the nape, all the while

keeping in contour with the head. The cheekpieces are hinged to the lower edge of the

skull. They overlap the back extension of the headpiece and lock together under the chin.

The remaining opening in the face exposes the eyes, nose, and part of the cheeks. This

can be closed by a bluntly pointed visor (Blair 1959: 86). Later, by 1440, a roundel (a

circular plate concentric upon a short extension) appears at the back. The purpose of this

roundel is likely to protect the strap and buckle of a wrapper – a reinforcing bevor of two

parts that protects the face below the visor and extends in a point on the upper chest.

After 1450 the face was gradually opened by shortening the top of the cheekpiece

extensions. During the rest of the 1400s, the cheekpieces became more shaped to the

cheeks and chin (Blair 1959: 88).

Armor for the Legs

Pre 13

Century

In the early middle ages, when the legs were given particular protection at all,

they were garbed in mail leggings know as chausses. These were made in two fashions

serving the same protective purpose: either one long flap of mail was hung in front of

each leg, then wrapped around and strapped behind the leg, or closely fitting tubular mail

hose with a garter under the knee for support. In the Bayeux Tapestry, only the leading

figures appear to have chausses (Blair 1959: 24).

Century

By the second quarter of the 13

century, an additional quilted defense was added

to the chausses. These “gamboised cuisses” were padded and quilted fabric leggings that

extended to just below the knee. They themselves were not for protection against the

chafing of the mail, as evident by the fact that they were often worn over the chausses.

Instead, they provided padding against the blunt impact of a blow that the mail could not

protect against (Blair 1959 34).

Plate was first used (besides helmets) in the construction of leg defenses, a

sensible development considering the vulnerability of a mounted warrior’s legs to a man

on foot. The first plate leg defense was likely the poleyn, a knee defense that was in use

by 1250. Initially poleyns were small, but by 1270 they had become hemispherical and

large enough to protect the front and sides of the knees (Blair 1959: 39, 42). They were

attached to the knees of the chausses or gamboised cuisses. After 1340, the poleyn is

small again, using a circular or fan-shaped side wing to protect the sides of the knee, most

especially the outside (Blair 1959: 63). By the late 14

century, the poleyn is formed of

three lames: the top lame protects the patella; the central lame articulates the top plate to

the lowest lame, which extends down to overlap the greave with which it was worn. The

poleyn at this stage was articulated to the plate cuisse above it (Blair 1959: 63).

Schynbalds, plate shin defenses, emerge nearly concurrently with the poleyn.

They were at this stage gutter-shaped and likely worn under the chausses before 1300.

After this, they were worn over the chausses and used through the 14

century and,

though less frequently, in the 15

century.

Century

Greaves, however, were already emerging by the early 14

century. These lower

leg defenses were constructed of two gutter shaped plates that enclosed the lower leg in a

roughly tubular shape. They were hinged together, usually on the outside, and buckled

and strapped closed on the inner side (Blair 1959: 43). By the late 14

century, the lower

edge of the greaves (now more prominent than schynbalds) extends down to the instep

and is embossed to the shape of the ankle. The lower edge overlaps the sabaton with

which it was worn.

Cuisses made of plate emerged by 1320, though

they were rare before 1350 (Blair 1959: 43). They came

into common use after 1370, at which point they were

made of one wide plate over the thigh extending to the

top of the knee and extending laterally and boxed on the

outside of the thigh. A sharp outward turn at the top

serves as a stop-rib to prevent the armor from guiding a weapon into a vulnerable target.

The lower edge is embossed to the shape of the top of the knee. It is articulated to the

poleyn by a narrow lame. It was secured to the leg by laces behind the thigh and knee

(Blair 1959: 63). During the last quarter of the 14

century a hinged plate was added to the outside edge

to protect the side of the leg (Blair 1959: 64).

Sabatons, plate foot defenses, come into use

by the 1310s, but are rare before 1320. These were

made of lamellar plates, overlapping and shaped to

the top of the shoe, including the pointed toe. They

were probably riveted to a leather lining that was laced to the shoe worn underneath

(Blair 1959: 43, 44). They retained this form past the period of interest.

After 1340 the gamboised cuisses are often shown in illustrations with rivets,

suggesting that they were being constructed in a style similar to brigandine.

Century

Figure 12: Italian Cuisse with
Poleyn, 1450 -1490. HAM #
938.o

Figure 13: Late 15th Century
German Plate Sabaton. HAM #
2686.s

Leg defenses changed only a little during the 15

century, and these changes

followed regional tastes. After 1460, the German cuisse lengthened towards the hip (left

unprotected by German disfavor of the tassets) by the

addition of horizontal lames. By the end of the 15

century the German cuisse returned to its normal

length, but retained a couple of lames at the upper edge.

The Italian cuisse, however, began to extend upwards

on the front top of the main plate with a rounded

extension. The Italians in the 15

century generally

forwent plate sabatons in favor of mail defenses that covered the top of the foot. The

Germans preferred a plate sabaton, very pointed at the toe until the very end of the

century, when the toe region was broadened greatly. The poleyn was similar in both

regions, only in Italy a large side-wing “puckered” to bend in behind the knee was

preferred to the fan shaped side-wing common in Germany. Also, the bottommost lame

on the Italian poleyn was sharply pointed downwards, though it was often replaced with a

mail fringe instead (Blair 1959: 84, 85, 100, 101).

Armor for the Arms

Century

Before the second half of the 13

century, the mail sleeves of the hauberk, which

extended to the wrists, were the chief protection for the arms. By the last quarter of the

century the sleeves had extended into mufflers, mail mittens with one bag-like

section to cover the fingers and a separate thumb section. The palm area was not mail,

but fabric or leather. Mufflers were slitted near the wrists so they could be easily

Figure 14: Late 15th Century
Italian-Style Left Cuisse and
Poleyn. HAM # 2886.1.a

removed from the hands when not needed. Often, a lace at the wrist allowed tightening

to keep a good fit to the muffler (Blair 1959: 29). The muffler was displaced by the

gauntlet during the end of the 13

century, though it did continue in general use into the

1330s, and then in rare use until the third quarter of the 14

century (Blair 1959: 46, 74).

As early as 1260, couters – disc-shaped metal plates to protect the elbows – make

their appearance. They are uncommon before 1300, however, and by this date small

plate discs were also found attached to the shoulders of the hauberk as well. The mail

sleeves of the hauberk still provide the bulk of the protection of the arm. Plate metal

gauntlets formed in the coat-of-plates technique emerge just at the end of the 13

century.

The plates are tinned or coppered in order to prevent rusting. By 1320 the back of the

wrist cuff is protected by a gutter-shaped plate, or several gutter-shaped lames (Blair

1959: 42).

Century

The first full vambraces emerge during the 1310s. Each is formed by a gutter

shaped upper cannon covering the outer arm, a cup-like couter, and a gutter shaped lower

cannon, again on the outer arm, all strapped outside the hauberk sleeves. Often, two

besagews – disc-shaped plates – are laced to the front of the shoulder about the armpit

and to the upper bend in the elbow. This is common until 1335 and extant as late as 1347

(Blair 1959: 45). As early as 1325, the lower cannon begins to be made of two gutter-

shaped pieces hinged on the outside that enclose the lower arm and lace on the inner side.

By 1335, in England, a full vambrace emerges with upper and lower cannon

joined by a laminated couter. The lower cannon is

apparently completely tubular, with no clear joins or

hinges. The upper cannon is nearly tubular, with a

narrow opening on the inner portion where laces secure

the vambrace to the arm. The couter had developed a

circular side-wing for the protection formerly provided

by the besagew at the upper bend of the elbow mentioned above. Some are joined by

laminated spaudlers that just cover the shoulders and shoulder besagews that cover the

front of the armpit region. By 1340, both the upper and lower cannons are formed by

hinged gutter-shaped plates that close to cover the whole circumference of the upper and

lower arm, respectively. The cannons are joined together by a laminated couter with a

circular sidewing. The upper cannon is laminated to a spaudler that covers the shoulder

and the extreme upper arm. Until 1360 a circular besagew protects the front of the

armpit. After this date, the English discard it until the 1420s (Blair 1959: 64, 65). In

addition, English armorers after 1360 decrease the number of plates in the couter until at

last the couter is one plate with a heart-shaped side wing. The couter is articulated to the

upper and lower cannons by one or two narrow lames (Blair 1959: 65).

At the very end of the 1300s, a developed spaudler, more properly called a

pauldron now, emerged. This pauldron extended past the shoulders onto the chest and

back. After 1410 the pauldron would grow to become the most popular form of shoulder

defense outside of Germany (Blair 1959: 66).

Figure 15: A hinged vambrace
lower cannon. HAM # 3084.18

The German preference for arm protection varied greatly during the 14

century.

Generally, the arm defense consisted of a separate upper and lower cannon, either gutter-

shaped or tubular, and sometimes a separate couter. All were secured to the outer

garment, either the hauberk or aketon. Sometimes, the lower cannon held an extension to

cover the outside of the elbow. In fourteenth-century Germany, the coat-of-plates

provided shoulder defense (Blair 1959: 64).

Century

Late 14

and early 15

century Italian arm defenses were provided with a gutter-

shaped upper cannon, joined to the lower cannon by an articulated couter. The tubular

lower cannon constricted at the wrist and flared out again; this is known as the tulip form.

The upper portion of the lower cannon had horizontal slots for the rivets of the couter,

which allowed for lateral motion of the arm (Blair 1959: 65). It was customary for the

arm defense to be worn without couters, though by 1410 pauldrons became popular even

in Italy. When spaudlers were worn, they were separate from the upper cannon. By

1430, the upper cannons of the vambrace were longer and extensive around the sides,

such that by this date the upper cannon began to nearly enclose the upper half of the

upper arm. The side-wing of the right couter extended to cover the tendon of the elbow,

and is reinforced with a plate over its upper half. The left couter is enlarged only slightly,

but is joined by a very large reinforcing plate known as the guard of the vambrace (Blair

1959: 83). Later, after 1450, the couters were made symmetrical again, and were each

joined by large shell-like extensions to cover the tendons in each elbow. Also, by this

date, the lower cannons of the vambraces become less tulip-shaped.

The fifteenth-century pauldron in Italy was asymmetric: the left pauldron was

large and square-shaped, while the right pauldron was much smaller, though still square-

shaped. Each carried a stop-rib on the upper edge. By 1420, a circular reinforcing plate

overlaps much of the left pauldron. After 1425, a device known as a haute-piece was

added to the upper edges of both pauldrons, with the left pauldron carrying a larger haute-

piece. The haute-piece is made by an upward turn at the inner end of the pauldrons. It

was designed to protect the neck. By 1435 a reinforcing plate, shaped to the left pauldron

and covering the lower three quarters of it, is generally used. This latter form is known

as a gardbrace. The right pauldron also carried a gardbrace, albeit a smaller one. Both

were held to their respective pauldrons with pin and staple. With the development of the

gardbrace, the haute-pieces were now extensions of the reinforcing plates rather than the

pauldrons themselves. 1440, and there afterwards, brought more rounded and larger

pauldrons until they finally overlapped at the back. After 1490 the pauldrons were cut off

vertically to prevent overlapping without a decrease in size (Blair 1959: 82, 83).

The gauntlets made after the coat-of-plates fashion were

used until the third quarter of the 14

century, but after 1340 the

lames in the gauntlets began merging into one another. The effect

was the construction of the gauntlet by fewer, but larger, lames.

By this date some gauntlets already had one plate covering the

back of the hand from wrist to the ends of the metacarpals, bordered by the thumb joint

and embossed around the finger joints and the base of the thumb. Overlapping plates

over the fingers and thumb and a cuff of longitudinal lames completes this artifact. By

1350 the cuff and metacarpal lames became one plate, creating the hourglass form of

Figure 16: Mitten
Gauntlet. German
or Austrian. Circa
1440- 1460. HAM
# 2440.1

gauntlet. The overlapping plates were riveted to leather strips that were riveted to the

metacarpal plate. All of this was riveted to a leather glove for wearing. Sometimes, the

whole was lined in fabric as well (Blair 1959: 66). By 1370

the hourglass form was the dominant hand-defense in use.

Also by this date, gadlings – shallow spikes over the finger

joints – have grown into general use. After 1430, the

gauntlet changed form. Laminated plates protected the

fingers. Two lames, articulated to one another and to the

metacarpal plate, covered the right hand, while only one

covered the left, which did not need as much range to move as did the right. The cuffs

gradually lengthened during this time, at first rounded and then pointed after 1440. By

1450 they had become pointed and reached nearly to the couter. This fashion remained

in Italy through the rest of the 1400s (Blair 1959: 84).

By 1420, German armor fashion incorporated spaudlers. These were small,

round, and laminated, fitting on the sleeves of the haubergeon or coat-armor. Lames of

gradually decreasing size extended from the spaudlers halfway down the upper arm.

With a besagew for the armpit (occasionally a part of the main spaudler plate, but

generally hung separately), this defense, along with the three-separate-piece vambrace or

the Italian form of vambrace, sufficed for the German tastes until 1450. Around this

time, the upper cannon of the vambrace became a lamellar construction, and the

spaudlers became a lamination to the upper cannon (Blair 1959: 97).

The German pauldron also emerged during the 1450s. Similar to the Italian

pauldron evolution, the spaudlers gradually extended onto the chest and, primarily, the

Figure 17: 15th
Century Southern
German Gauntlet.
HAM # 2528.h

back. These were worn separate from or,

occasionally, laminated to the upper cannon. A

besagew protected the armpit. After 1470, the

extension over the armpit was cut to fit the arch of the

armpit while the back extended further. With the

High Gothic style in development, the back extension

was rounded at the edge, with a fluted surface and

scalloped edge. German pauldrons gradually became more like the Italian style.

Gardbraces began to reinforce the pauldrons. Haute-pieces grew from the gardbraces, or,

sometimes, were formed separately and riveted to the pauldron. During the last decade

and a half of the 15

century, the German-made pauldrons followed the Italian style

(Blair 1959: 98)

During this last decade and a half, the inner portion of the elbow was filled with

small, articulated lames. This style lasted 40 years, and made a comeback in the 17

century. During the last decade, the side-wing of the vambrace – previously fan or heart-

shaped – became plainer and more ovular. The side-wing is depressed towards the inner

portion of the bend in the elbow to slightly fit to it. Also, during this last decade, the

upper cannon of the vambrace is formed in two pieces, the upper of which is flanged and

the lower edge so that the lower portion can rotate in a groove, allowing more rotational

motion of the arm (Blair 1959: 98, 99).

Shields

Shields were worn by warriors of all types for defense of the body and, often, the

legs and head. The use of shields was not limited to defense, however. The shield could

Figure 18: Right pauldron.
Perhaps Austrian, Circa 1490.
HAM # 2608.d

be used to push back or even strike and opponent. This latter function was supported by

the inclusion of a boss, a metal cup on the outside of some shields corresponding to the

handhold on the inside.

Early shields were often of the “Viking” design, whether Vikings were the ones

wielding them or not. These shields were round, nearly circular, with a diameter short of

3 feet. They were made of thin wooded boards laid with alternating grain. A layer of

leather covered the wood, and a circular boss and handle fit in the center. A metal rim

may have been placed on the edge. These shields were likely between 0.6 and 1.2 inches

in thickness (Edge and Paddock 1988: 23). The construction of the shield, if not its

shape, remained constant through the period.

By the latter half of the 11

century, the kite shield generally replaced the

rounded shield. This was shaped much like an elongated teardrop, with the point down

and the rounded portion up. It extended from the shoulder to the knee and curved slightly

to provide simultaneous protection to the front and the side. It was held by a long strap

that hung over the right shoulder called a guige. Enarmes, smaller straps worn over the

left forearm, provided additional support and control. The kite shield provided greater

protection for the legs, especially for the mounted warrior (Edge and Paddock 1998: 23,

24).

The kite shield remained in use through the 12

century, though by the end it was

getting smaller and the top, previously rounded, was growing flatter. This trend was to

continue throughout the middle ages until the triangular heater came about

The typical 13

century shield was still roughly a kite shield, though it was

growing shorter and less rounded. However, the shrinking stature of the kite shield was

Snapshots of Armor Ensembles over Time

This section features brief descriptions of common ensembles of armor worn by

warriors of the middle ages as a function of time. The reader is urged to bear in mind that

these descriptions are generalized, and that in truth there was a great deal of variation in

ensemble generated by local practices, local resources, personal wealth, and personal

preference.

Before 1000 CE

The armament of the warrior elite before the 11

century was pretty consistent,

especially after the 8

century, when more information becomes available. An elite

warrior of this time was garbed in a long mail hauberk reaching nearly to the knees, but

slitted in the front and back to allow the warrior to mount a horse. The sleeves were

short, reaching to the elbows at their longest. A helmet, usually conical and constructed

after the Spangenhelm fashion, was worn to protect the head. A nasal on the helmet

protected the face. The legs were generally not protected by anything more substantial

than common leggings. The arms carried no more protection than the short sleeves that

covered them, though a large rounded shield was carried.

1000 CE to 1100 CE

The 11

century elite warriors were garbed in knee-length hauberks with attached

mail coifs. The sleeves of the hauberk reach to mid-forearm. The helmet they wore was

conical and fashioned after the Spangenhelm, with an iron or bronze framework with iron

plate infills. A nasal hung from the brow of the helmet to protect the face. Only the

sleeves of the hauberk protected the arms, and the legs were usually unprotected.

However, either a large rounded shield or a large kite shield served to protect the arms

and legs as well as the body.

1100 CE to 1150 CE

During the first half of the 12

century, the warrior elite was garbed with a knee-

length hauberk with attached coif. A conical helmet, less commonly with a nasal,

defended the head. The sleeves of the hauberk reached mid-forearm. Neither legs nor

arms customarily carried other defense than that provided by the hauberk. A large kite

shield served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1150 CE to 1200 CE

The warrior elite of the latter half of the 12

century wore knee-length hauberks

with attached coifs. A helmet, now often rounded and with or without a nasal, was worn.

The sleeves of the hauberk reached to the wrists, where they terminated in mufflers to

defend the hands. The legs were defended with chausses, often formed with each leg

constructed of a flap of mail to be drawn around the warrior’s leg and laced up the back

side. The aketon was often worn with the hauberk, probably under it. A surcoat was

sometimes worn over the ensemble. A large kite shield served to protect the arms and

legs as well as the body.

1200 CE to 1225 CE

The warrior elite of the earliest quarter of the 13

century wore a knee-length

hauberk with coif and mufflers. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a surcoat was

worn over it. Chausses protected the legs. The helmet was of either the rounded, conical,

or flattened top form, generally with a face guard and often with a neck guard. A large

kite shield served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1225 CE to 1250 CE

The warrior elite of the second quarter of the 13

century wore a knee-length

hauberk with coif and mufflers. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a surcoat was

worn over it. Chausses protected the legs, along with gamboised cuisses. A cervellière

was worn with the coif. A cylindrical helm was worn over the cervellière and coif. A

slightly smaller kite shield served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1250 CE to 1275 CE

The warrior elite of the third quarter of the 13

century wore a thigh-length

hauberk with mufflers. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a surcoat was worn

over it. The surcoat was sometimes reinforced with vertical lames in rows. Chausses

protected the legs, along with gamboised cuisses. A small plate poleyn protected the

knees. Plate schynbalds protected the shins. A cervellière was worn with the coif, or a

cervellière with an attached aventail was worn. A roughly cylindrical helm with a

tapered skull was worn over the cervellière, coif, and padded arming cap. A heater shield

served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1275 CE to 1300 CE

The warrior elite of the last quarter of the 13

century wore a thigh-length

hauberk with mufflers. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a surcoat was worn

over it. The surcoat was sometimes reinforced with vertical lames in rows. Chausses

protected the legs, along with gamboised cuisses. A large, hemispherical plate poleyn

protected the knees in the front and sides. Plate schynbalds protected the shins. A

cervellière with attached aventail and a roughly cylindrical helm with a tapered, almost

rounded, skull were worn. An arming cap helped support the weight of the helm. A

heater shield served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1300 CE to 1325 CE

The warrior elite of the first quarter of the 14

century wore a thigh-length

hauberk with mufflers. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a surcoat, now called

a coat-armor, was worn over it. The surcoat was sometimes reinforced with vertical

lames in rows. If not, a separate coat-of-plates was often worn. Chausses protected the

legs, along with gamboised cuisses. A large, hemispherical plate poleyn protected the

knees in the front and sides. Plate schynbalds protected the shins. Couters and besagews

were worn to protect the elbows and armpits. Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates

were laced to the upper and lower arms. A cervellière with attached aventail was worn,

along with a roughly cylindrical helm with a tapered, almost rounded, skull and a visor.

An arming cap helped support the weight of the helm. A heater shield served to protect

the arms and legs as well as the body.

1325 CE to 1350 CE

The warrior elite of the second quarter of the 14

century wore a thigh-length

hauberk. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a coat-armor was worn over it. The

surcoat was sometimes reinforced with vertical lames in rows. If not, a separate coat-of-

plates was often worn. Chausses protected the legs, along with gamboised cuisses. A

large, hemispherical plate poleyn protected the knees in the front and sides. Plate greaves

protected the lower leg. Sabatons of plate made worn on the feet. Couters and besagews

were worn to protect the elbows and armpits. Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates

were laced to the upper and lower arms. The lower cannon of the vambrace was now

hinged and tubular. A gauntlet made after the coat-of-plates fashion with many lames

was worn to protect the hands instead of the muffler. A bascinet with attached aventail

and a roughly cylindrical helm with a tapered skull and visor were worn. An arming cap

helped support the weight of the helm. A heater shield served to protect the arms and

legs as well as the body.

1350 CE to 1375 CE

The warrior elite of the third quarter of the 14

century wore a hip-length

hauberk. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and surcoat was worn over it. The

surcoat was sometimes reinforced with lames. If not, a separate coat-of-plates was often

worn. In either case, the upper chest lames were replaced with a single solid breastplate.

Chausses protected the legs, along with cuisses made after the coat-of-plates fashion. A

small, plate poleyn with a sidewing protected the knee in the front and on the outside.

Plate greaves protected the lower leg. Sabatons of plate were worn on the feet.

Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were laced to the upper and lower arms. The

lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged and tubular. The cannons of the

vambrace were attached together by a laminated couter with a sidewing. A gauntlet

made after the coat-of-plates fashion with few lames was worn to protect the hands. A

medium bascinet with attached aventail was worn, usually with a visor, either of the

standard side-hinged form or the Klappvisier form. The bascinet extended on the back

and sides to cover the nape of the neck and the cheeks. A heater shield served to protect

the arms and legs as well as the body.

1375 CE to 1400 CE

The warrior elite of the fourth quarter of the 14

century wore a hip-length

hauberk. An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and surcoat was worn over it. A coat-

of-plates reinforced the hauberk. It consisted of a breastplate with an attached lamellar

fauld. Sometimes a rounded breastplate was worn over the coat-of-plates, along with an

attached fauld. Chausses protected the legs, along with cuisses constructed in the coat-

of-plates fashion. Solid, one-piece plate cuisses now complemented the protection of the

legs. Sabatons of plate made worn on the feet. A small, plate poleyn with a sidewing

protected the knee in the front and on the outside. Plate greaves protected the lower leg.

Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were laced to the upper and lower arms. The

lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged and tubular. The cannons of the

vambrace were attached together by laminated couter with a sidewing. An hourglass

gauntlet was worn to protect the hands. A medium bascinet with attached aventail was

worn, with a visor or Klappvisier, often of a snouted form. The bascinet extended on the

back and sides to cover the neck and the cheeks. The apex of the bascinet had moved

back so that the back edge of the bascinet was nearly vertical. A heater shield may have

served to protect the arms and legs as well as the body.

1400 CE to 1420 CE

The warrior elite of the first fifth of the 15

century wore a hip-length hauberk.

An aketon was worn with the hauberk, and a coat-armor was worn over it. A breastplate

was worn over the hauberk, along with an attached lamellar fauld. Chausses protected

the legs, along with cuisses after the coat-of-plates fashion. Solid, one-piece plate cuisses

complemented the protection of the legs. Sabatons of plate made worn on the feet. A

small, plate poleyn with a sidewing protected the knee in the front and on the outside.

Plate greaves protected the lower leg. Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were

laced to the upper and lower arms. The lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged

and tubular. The cannons of the vambrace were attached together by a laminated couter

with a sidewing. A pauldron or spaudlers guarded the shoulders. An hourglass gauntlet

was worn to protect the hands. A medium bascinet with attached aventail was worn, with

a visor or Klappvisier, often of a snouted form. The bascinet extended on the back and

sides to cover the neck and the cheeks. The apex of the bascinet had moved back so that

the back edge of the bascinet was nearly vertical.

1420 CE to 1440 CE

The warrior elite of the first fifth of the 15

century wore a hip-length aketon with

mail gussets attached with points to protect open areas. A breastplate was worn over the

aketon, along with an attached lamellar fauld and, sometimes, tassets. A backplate was

worn as well, also with a fauld or culet. Chausses protected the legs, along with cuisses

after the coat-of-plates fashion. Solid, one-piece plate cuisses complemented the

protection of the legs. Sabatons of plate made worn on the feet. A small, plate poleyn

with a sidewing protected the knee in the front and on the outside. Plate greaves

protected the lower leg. Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were laced to the upper

and lower arms. The lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged and tubular. The

cannons of the vambrace were attached together by a laminated couter with a sidewing.

Pauldrons or spaudlers guarded the shoulders. Two haute-pieces protected the neck from

lateral attacks. A gauntlet with articulations over the fingers (as a group) was worn to

protect the hands. A great bascinet was worn with a visor or Klappvisier, often of a

snouted form. The bascinet extended to complete enclose the head and neck.

Alternatively, a sallet or barbut was worn.

1440 CE to 1460 CE

The warrior elite of the first fifth of the 15

century wore a hip-length aketon with

mail gussets attached with points to protect open areas. A breastplate was worn over the

aketon, along with an attached lamellar fauld and, often, tassets. A backplate was worn

as well, also with a fauld or culet. Chausses protected the legs, along with cuisses after

the coat-of-plates fashion. Solid, one-piece plate cuisses complemented the protection of

the legs. Sabatons of plate made worn on the feet. A small, plate poleyn with a sidewing

protected the knee in the front and on the outside. Plate greaves protected the lower leg.

Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were laced to the upper and lower arms. The

lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged and tubular. The cannons of the

vambrace were attached together by a laminated couter with a sidewing. Pauldrons

guarded the shoulders, and gardbraces were used to reinforce them. Two haute-pieces

protected the neck from lateral attacks. A gauntlet with articulations over the fingers (as

a group) was worn to protect the hands. A sallet was worn with a visor and separate

bevor.

1460 CE to 1480 CE

The warrior elite of the first fifth of the 15

century wore a hip-length aketon with

mail gussets attached with points to protect open areas. A breastplate was worn over the

aketon, along with an attached lamellar fauld and, often, tassets. A backplate was worn

as well, also with a fauld or culet. Chausses protected the legs, along with cuisses after

the coat-of-plates fashion. Solid, one-piece plate cuisses complemented the protection of

the legs. Sabatons of plate were worn on the feet. A small, plate poleyn with a sidewing

protected the knee in the front and on the outside. Plate greaves protected the lower leg.

Vambraces made of gutter-shaped plates were laced to the upper and lower arms. The

lower cannon of the vambrace was now hinged and tubular. The cannons of the

vambrace were attached together by a laminated couter with a sidewing. Pauldrons

guarded the shoulders, and gardbraces were used to reinforce them. Two haute-pieces

protected the neck from lateral attacks. A gauntlet with articulations over the fingers (as

a group) was worn to protect the hands. A sallet was worn with a visor and separate

bevor. The bascinet extended to complete enclose the head and neck. This was the era of

German Gothic armor.

1480 CE to 1500 CE

The warrior elite of the last fifth of the 15