Morphology vs. syntax,
Morphology vs. syntax,
the classification
the classification
of morphemes
of morphemes
February 28th
February 28th
Morphology vs. syntax,
Morphology vs. syntax,
the classification
the classification
of morphemes
of morphemes
February 28th
February 28th
What is a morpheme?
What is a morpheme?
The smallest individually meaningful
The smallest individually meaningful
element in the utterance of
element in the utterance of
a language, cf. Hockett (1958);
a language, cf. Hockett (1958);
Morphemes are commonly classified
Morphemes are commonly classified
into
into
(which can
occur as separate words) and
occur as separate words) and
as words).
as words).
The utterance given below could be
The utterance given below could be
decomposed into the following
decomposed into the following
elements:
elements:
the:small:est:individu:al:ly:mean:ing:ful:elem
the:small:est:individu:al:ly:mean:ing:ful:elem
ent
ent
It can be seen that a given word may be composed
It can be seen that a given word may be composed
of several morphemes;
of several morphemes;
Schematically:[[[mean]ing]ful]
Schematically:[[[mean]ing]ful]
In the previous example,
In the previous example,
the innermost
the innermost
morpheme
morpheme
is termed the
is termed the
root
root
as it is not
as it is not
further analysable into further elements;
further analysable into further elements;
More peripheral morphemes are called
More peripheral morphemes are called
affixes,
affixes,
which are examples of
which are examples of
bound
bound
morphemes
morphemes
as they can never appear in
as they can never appear in
isolation. For example:
isolation. For example:
-ing, -ful;
-ing, -ful;
Free morphemes
Free morphemes
Free morphemes can function as
Free morphemes can function as
independent words; for example:
independent words; for example:
mean, element;
mean, element;
Empty morphemes
Empty morphemes
Units of form without corresponding
Units of form without corresponding
meaning;
meaning;
One may isolate the units:
One may isolate the units:
cran-
cran-
and
and
–berry
–berry
in the word
in the word
cranberry.
cranberry.
However, the units cannot function
However, the units cannot function
independently or in other
independently or in other
combinations. Subsequently,
combinations. Subsequently,
the meaning-based definition fails
the meaning-based definition fails
in this case.
in this case.
Morpheme –{es}
/z/ /s/
/Iz/ /Ən/
/ø/
Examples of decomposition
Examples of decomposition
{boy}+{-es}= /boɪz/
{boy}+{-es}= /boɪz/
{girl} + {-es}= /gɜlz/
{girl} + {-es}= /gɜlz/
{bus}+{-es}= /bʌs
{bus}+{-es}= /bʌs
I
I
z/
z/
{ox}+{-en}=/oks
{ox}+{-en}=/oks
Ə
Ə
n/
n/
{sheep}+{-es}=/∫i:p
{sheep}+{-es}=/∫i:p
ø
ø
/
/
Morphemes can be divided into free
Morphemes can be divided into free
and bound base.
and bound base.
Zero morpheme
Zero morpheme
Meaning functions without form;
Meaning functions without form;
cat
cat
=
=
cat
cat
+
+
-Ø
-Ø
= ROOT ("cat") + SINGULAR
= ROOT ("cat") + SINGULAR
cats
cats
=
=
cat
cat
+
+
-s
-s
= ROOT ("cat") + PLURAL
= ROOT ("cat") + PLURAL
In addition, there are some cases in English where a zero
In addition, there are some cases in English where a zero
morpheme indicates plurality in nouns that take on irregular
morpheme indicates plurality in nouns that take on irregular
plurals.
plurals.
sheep
sheep
=
=
sheep
sheep
+
+
-Ø
-Ø
= ROOT ("sheep") + SINGULAR
= ROOT ("sheep") + SINGULAR
sheep
sheep
=
=
sheep
sheep
+
+
-Ø
-Ø
= ROOT ("sheep") + PLURAL
= ROOT ("sheep") + PLURAL
Also, a null morpheme marks the present tense of
Also, a null morpheme marks the present tense of
in
all forms but the third person singular:
all forms but the third person singular:
(I) run
(I) run
=
=
run
run
+
+
-Ø
-Ø
= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: Non-3rd-
= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: Non-3rd-
SINGULAR
SINGULAR
(He) runs
(He) runs
=
=
run
run
+
+
-s
-s
= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: 3rd-
= ROOT ("run") + PRESENT: 3rd-
SINGULAR
SINGULAR
Structure is the way in which
Structure is the way in which
elements are related to one another.
elements are related to one another.
The elements are responsible for
The elements are responsible for
organisation which results
organisation which results
in the sequence.
in the sequence.
We segment clauses and phrases into
We segment clauses and phrases into
words. Words consist of morphemes.
words. Words consist of morphemes.
Lexeme
Lexeme
The basic word form represented in
The basic word form represented in
many realisations.
many realisations.
The lexeme ‘matka’ may be
The lexeme ‘matka’ may be
represented by the following forms:
represented by the following forms:
matka, matce, matki, matek;
matka, matce, matki, matek;
The actual form will be used depending
The actual form will be used depending
on the structure of
on the structure of
the clause and function;
the clause and function;
Matka kupiła dziecku buty
Matka kupiła dziecku buty
The sentence is composed
The sentence is composed
of 4 lexemes:
of 4 lexemes:
Matk-, kupi-, dzieck-,
Matk-, kupi-, dzieck-,
but-;
but-;
Morph and allomorphs
Morph and allomorphs
Morph is a textual, context-sensitive
Morph is a textual, context-sensitive
realisation of a morpheme;
realisation of a morpheme;
Allomorphs are several distinct
Allomorphs are several distinct
morphs representing one morpheme;
morphs representing one morpheme;
Allomorphy
Allomorphy
Alternations in morphology are
Alternations in morphology are
conditioned phonologically,
conditioned phonologically,
grammatically (the distribution
grammatically (the distribution
depends on the gender of nouns, e.g.
depends on the gender of nouns, e.g.
‘noce’- feminine and lexically, e.g.
‘noce’- feminine and lexically, e.g.
‘dziecko’-’dzieci’ conditioned. When
‘dziecko’-’dzieci’ conditioned. When
we remove the ending ‘i’,
we remove the ending ‘i’,
what is left is an irregular alternant
what is left is an irregular alternant
‘dzieć’.
‘dzieć’.
Inflection vs. derivation
Inflection vs. derivation
One may distinguish two
One may distinguish two
subcomponents of morphology:
subcomponents of morphology:
-
derivation
derivation
- related to the word
- related to the word
formation of the new lexemes from
formation of the new lexemes from
the already existing ones;
the already existing ones;
-
inflection
inflection
-marking of such
-marking of such
morphosyntactic categories such as:
morphosyntactic categories such as:
number, person, gender, tense,
number, person, gender, tense,
mood and aspect.
mood and aspect.
Affixes
Affixes
(formatives) may be divided
(formatives) may be divided
into: derivational and inflectional
into: derivational and inflectional
ones;
ones;
Stem
Stem
is a part of the word-form,
is a part of the word-form,
which remains when all inflectional
which remains when all inflectional
affixes have been removed; e.g. the
affixes have been removed; e.g. the
Polsish participle
Polsish participle
płaczącego: płacz
płaczącego: płacz
is
is
a word stem –
a word stem –
ąc-
ąc-
and
and
–go
–go
are
are
inflectional morphemes (affixes).
inflectional morphemes (affixes).
Base
Base
This term is used in derivational
This term is used in derivational
morphology to refer to the lexeme
morphology to refer to the lexeme
from which more complex lexemes
from which more complex lexemes
are formed;
are formed;
Exercises in morphology,
Exercises in morphology,
part 1
part 1
Xerox copies
Xerox copies
Paradigm, syncretism
Paradigm, syncretism
and cumulative exponent
and cumulative exponent
Word-forms which represent a given
Word-forms which represent a given
lexeme are organised into
lexeme are organised into
paradigms- closed sets of forms.
paradigms- closed sets of forms.
Let’s consider the paradigms
Let’s consider the paradigms
of the noun declension of the Polish
of the noun declension of the Polish
word ‘kot’.
word ‘kot’.
Examples
Examples
There are 10 different forms
There are 10 different forms
representing one lexeme.
representing one lexeme.
‘
‘
kot’
kot’
sg
sg
pl
pl
Nominative kot
Nominative kot
kot-y
kot-y
Genitive
Genitive
kot-a
kot-a
kot-ów
kot-ów
Dative
Dative
kot-u
kot-u
kot-om
kot-om
Acc.
Acc.
Kot-a
Kot-a
kot-y
kot-y
Instrumental kot-em
Instrumental kot-em
kot-ami
kot-ami
Ablative
Ablative
kocie
kocie
kot-ach
kot-ach
Vov.
Vov.
O kocie!
O kocie!
O koty!
O koty!
The information about
The information about
the case, gender and number is
the case, gender and number is
encoded in the formative
encoded in the formative
-em, which is termed a cumulative
-em, which is termed a cumulative
exponent;
exponent;
Syncretism
Syncretism
The merging of different inflectional
The merging of different inflectional
varieties of a word during
varieties of a word during
the development of a language.
the development of a language.
Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology deals with
Derivational morphology deals with
processes responsible for forming
processes responsible for forming
new lexemes. Ona may distinguish 2
new lexemes. Ona may distinguish 2
processes responsible for
processes responsible for
the conveyance of new lexemes,
the conveyance of new lexemes,
which is presented in the following
which is presented in the following
diagram.
diagram.
Derivational processes
Concatenative processes
Non-concatenative processes
Concatenative processes-
Concatenative processes-
consiting in placing two
consiting in placing two
recognisable elements side by
recognisable elements side by
side
side
Concatenative processes
Affixation
Compounding
Non-concatenative
Non-concatenative
processes
processes
Non-concatenative processes
Zero derivation (conversion)
Back derivation
Word manufacturing
Back derivation
Back derivation
Back-formation
Back-formation
is the process of
is the process of
creating a new lexeme, usually by
creating a new lexeme, usually by
removing actual or supposed affixes,
removing actual or supposed affixes,
e.g.
e.g.
insert/insertion
insert/insertion
,
,
project/projection
project/projection
,
,
Conversion
Conversion
It is also called
It is also called
zero derivation
zero derivation
,
,
which is a kind of word formation;
which is a kind of word formation;
specifically, it is the creation
specifically, it is the creation
of a word from an existing word
of a word from an existing word
without any change in form, e.g.
without any change in form, e.g.
from the adjective ‘clean’ we form
from the adjective ‘clean’ we form
a verb: ‘to clean’.
a verb: ‘to clean’.
Word manufacturing
Clipping
Blending
Acronymisation
Acronymization
Acronymization
The process in which
The process in which
are formed from the initial
are formed from the initial
components in a phrase or a word.
components in a phrase or a word.
These components may be individual
These components may be individual
letters (as in
letters (as in
) or parts of words
) or parts of words
(as in
(as in
Benelux
Benelux
and
and
Ameslan
Ameslan
(American Slang Language)
(American Slang Language)
).
).
Blending
Blending
The beginning of one word is added
The beginning of one word is added
to the end of the other. For example,
to the end of the other. For example,
is a blend of
is a blend of
br
br
eakfast
eakfast
and
and
l
l
unch
unch
.
.
Clipping
Clipping
clipping
clipping
is the
is the
process which consists
process which consists
in the reduction of a word to one of
in the reduction of a word to one of
its parts, e.g.
its parts, e.g.
exam
exam
(ination),
(ination),
math
math
(ematics), and
(ematics), and
lab
lab
(oratory).
(oratory).
Exercises in morphology,
Exercises in morphology,
part 2
part 2
Xerox copies
Xerox copies
References
References
Szymanek, B. (1998).
Szymanek, B. (1998).
Introduction to
Introduction to
Morphological Analysis.
Morphological Analysis.
Warszawa: PWN.
Warszawa: PWN.
Quirk, R. (1980).
Quirk, R. (1980).
A Grammar of
A Grammar of
Contemporary English
Contemporary English
. London: Longman.
. London: Longman.
Hockett, C. (1958). A course in modern
Hockett, C. (1958). A course in modern
linguistics. Toronto: Macmillan.
linguistics. Toronto: Macmillan.
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syn
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/syn
cretism; 09.04.12;
cretism; 09.04.12;