The hierarchy of

words, the parts of

speech and

grammatical

categories

Revision

of the word –formation

processes

Back derivation



Back-formation

is the process of

creating a new

lexeme

, usually by

removing actual or supposed

affixes

, e.g.

insert/insertion

project/projection

Conversion



It is also called

which is a kind of

;

specifically, it is the creation

of a

word

from an existing word

without any change in form, e.g.

from the adjective ‘clean’ we form

a verb: ‘to clean’.

Acronymization



The process in which

abbreviations

are formed from the initial

components in a phrase or a word.

These components may be

individual letters (as in

CEO

) or

parts of words (as in

Benelux

and

Ameslan

(American Slang

Language)

Blending



The beginning of one word is added

to the end of the other. For

example,

brunch

is a blend of

eakfast

and

unch

Clipping



clipping

is the

word

formation

process which consists in the

reduction of a word to one of its

parts, e.g.

exam

(ination),

math

(ematics), and

lab

(oratory).

The simplest possible compound

consists of two underived

lexemes:

modifier

and its

head.

Usually the modifying pre-head

element is stressed more heavily

than the head itself, e.g.

black,board

war

time

circular

Morning newspaper



Morning

news

paper

Endocentricity

vs. extracentricity

Considering the examples of compounds

presented before, one may lay stress

on the notions of ‘endocentricity’

and ‘extracentricity’.

Endocentricity: the presence of one

central element and the other which is

less important.

Extracentricity



The absence of central parts,

e.g. in the compound

redskin;

Red

skin

Exercise 7 and 8

Structure



Fitting components together into

a particular way.



A syntactic structure- analysing

linguistic expressions into their

constituent parts.

Constituent

It is a part of a sentence. We can

distinguish an optional and an

obligatory one, e.g.

beside a stream

‘

beside’ and ‘stream’ are both

constituents

Phrase



It is a sequence of words that can function

as constituents in the structure of

sentences.



A directly dominates B and C, which are of

equal rank.

The relation is visible in the following sentence:

Old Sam sunbathed beside the stream

and

so did I.

The sequence of sentence is the result of

the hierarchy in terms of dominence.

One constituent can dominate another

constituent.

There are two types of cinstituents:

Direct dominence;

Indirect dominence;

PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech include certain

classes of words.

There are two large classes:

major parts of speech;

minor parts of speech;

Major parts of speech



Noun



Verb



Adjective



Adverb

Minor parts of speech



Pronoun



Preposition



Particle



Negator



Conjunction

NOUNS



Words which name a person, place

or thing.

To analyse the syntactic characteristics of

nouns, a following example is given:

My aunt’s arrival

took us by surprise.

We all watched

my aunt’s arrival

We all read about

my aunt’s arrival

In the sentences provided before

the expression ‘my aunt’s arrival’

functions as:

Subject of the clause;

Object of a verb;

Object of a preposition;



A class of nouns function as:

subject, object of a verb and object

of a preposiotion.

Nouns are characterised by number,

case, Saxon Genetive and natural

gender.



verb

, from the Latin

verbum

meaning

word

, is a

(

) that in

conveys an

action (

bring

read

walk

run

learn

), an

occurrence (

happen

become

or a state of being (

exist

stand

In the usual description of

English

, the basic form,

with or without the

particle

, is the

infinitive

. In

many

languages

, verbs are

inflected

(modified in

form) to encode

tense

aspect

, mood and voice. A

verb may also agree with the person, gender,

and/or number of some of its arguments, such as

its subject, or object.



Verb is the most important part of

the clause and has a lot of

information.



All English sentences must have

a subject. If there is a subject, there

must be a verb.

From syntactic point of view

verbs are predicate forming

elements:



1) Predicate forming elements;



2) Morphological features: aspect,

tense, mood and voice;

Verbs denote situations

Situation

States

Events



States

are situations which correspond

to a limited period of time, e.g. know,

believe, have;



Events

may be

static

dynamic

;

Dynamic

events are divided into:

momentary (e.g

. jump, bite

)

and

non-

momentary (make, write)

;

Aspect

Aspect is the expression of the temporal

structure of an action or state.

Aspect in English expresses ongoing actions

or states with or without distinct end points.

English has four aspects: simple,

progressive, perfect, and perfect-

progressive, e.g.

Tom was writing a letter at

o’clock.

One may find out elements of

progressiveness in the previous examples.

Tense

Tense is a grammaticalised way of indicating

the relation obtaining between the situation

denoted by the verb and the moment of

speaking.

Tense is a deictic category which means that in

a sentence there is a reference to the

situation of utterance, e.g. ‘I’m speaking to

you now’,

which refers to the spatio-temporal

conditions of the situation.

Examples



‘

Tom is writing a letter’- an

uncompleted action;



‘

Tom has written a letter’- a

completed action;



‘

Tom has been writing’- combining

ideas;



Simple Past Tense involves elements

of definiteness;



Present Perfect Tense denotes

indefiniteness;

MOOD



It is a grammaticalised and

sometimes lexicalised way of

indicating

the speaker’s utterance;

Mood



English has three moods:

indicative,

subjunctive, and imperative.



The indicative mood allows speakers to

express assertions, denials, and questions of

actuality or strong probability. Most

sentences in English are in the indicative

mood because the indicative is the most

commonly used mood. For example, the

statement

I read the book

and the question

Did you read the book?

are both sentences

in the indicative mood.



The subjunctive mood expresses

commands, requests, suggestions,

wishes, hypotheses, purposes,

doubts, and suppositions that are

contrary to fact at the time of the

utterance.

Voice



Voice is the expression of relationships

between the predicate and nominal

functions. English has two voices:

active and passive.

In the active

voice, the subject performs the action

of or acts upon the verb and the direct

object receives the action of the verb.



In the passive voice, the subject receives

the action of the transitive verb. For

example, the sentence

I read the book

is in

the active voice because the subject

performs the action of reading and the

direct object

the book

receives the action of

reading. The sentence

The book was read

[

by me

], on the other hand, is in the

passive voice because the subject

The book

receives the action of reading.

ADJECTIVES



An adjective modifies (qualifies or limits the meaning of )

a noun or a pronoun. It answers thequestions, What kind?

Which one(s)? How many? How much?

Carrie read an interesting story. ( What kind of story?)
The recent article has that information. ( Which article?)
Kent owns those surfboards. ( Which surfboards?)
Wendy paid fi fty dollars for the jacket. ( How many dollars?)
Much space was devoted to her artwork. ( How much

space?)



The words a, an, and the are the most frequently used

adjectives. Although they are sometimes referred to as

articles or noun markers, they are really adjectives, plain

and simple.



An adjective can come before or after the noun or

pronoun it describes:



Older cards are found on the table. ( Which cards?)



Tall players and intelligent coaches were

interviewed by the interested reporter.

( Which players? Which coaches? Which reporter?)



Tired and hungry , the campers reached the lodge.

( What kind of campers?)



The campers, tired and hungry , reached the lodge.

( What kind of campers?)

ADVERBS



An adverb is a word that modifies (qualifies
or limits) a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb.



◗ Many adverbs end in - ly .



◗ Adverbs answer any of these four
questions: Where? When? How? To what
extent?



◗ Adverbs make writing more specific and
more exact.

Types of adjectives:



There are several types of adjectives:



A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.



Italian bread Herculean strength Midas touch

Canadian sunset



A compound adjective is a word composed of

two or more words. Sometimes these words are



hyphenated.



landmark decision black-and-blue mark hometown

hero



Do not use a hyphen after an adverb ending in - ly.



newly painted mural sickly sweet odor recently

purchased



Adverbs modify verbs:



John ate quickly . ( How did he eat?); I walk there . ( Where

did

I walk?)



Ashleigh will eat soon . ( When will Ashleigh eat?)



Adverbs modify adjectives:



Rex is very happy. ( Very modifies the adjective happy

and answers the question, To what extent?)



The program was too unrealistic. (Too modifies the

adjective unrealistic and answers thequestion, To what

extent?)



Adverbs modify other adverbs:



Warren walks too quickly. (Too modifies the adverb quickly).

PRONOUNS



A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more nouns.



We use pronouns to:



◗ Refer to a noun (called its antecedent) that usually

comes before the pronoun



◗ Make our writing clearer, smoother, and less awkward



In the sentence, “Roberto feels that he can win the race,”

he is the pronoun, and Roberto is the antecedent.



In the sentence, “Terry and Jim know that they are best

friends,” they is the pronoun, and



Terry and Jim are the noun antecedents.

Types of pronouns



Personal pronouns refer to people and things. They are divided into

three categories called



first person (referring to the person who is speaking: I went to the mall),

second person (referring



to the person spoken to: Joey, can you see the bus?), and third person

(referring to anyone or anything else: Bob saw us do this assignment).

The pronouns in the two example sentences above are personal

pronouns.



The following list shows these three categories of personal pronouns:



Singular Plural



First person I, my, mine, me we, our, ours, us



(the person speaking)



Second person you, your, yours you, your, yours



(the person spoken to)



Third person he, his, him, she, her, they, their, theirs, them



(some other person hers, it, its



The following list shows these three categories

of personal pronouns:



Singular Plural



First person I, my, mine, me we, our, ours, us



(the person speaking)



Second person you, your, yours you, your, yours



(the person spoken to)



Third person he, his, him, she, her, they, their,

theirs, them



(some other person hers, it, its

Reflexive pronouns



A reflexive pronoun is formed by

adding - self or - selves to certain

personal pronouns.



Examples of reflexive pronouns are

myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,

themselves, yourself and yourselves.

The sentence, “I found it myself,”

contains the personal pronoun I and

the reflexive pronoun myself.

Interrogative

and demonstrative

pronouns



An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a

question. These pronouns are which, who,



whom, and whose.



A demonstrative pronoun is used to point

out a specifi c person or thing. These

pronouns



include this, that, these, and those. In the

sentence, “Theresa, is this yours?” this is

the demonstrative



pronoun, and yours is the personal pronoun.

Indefinite pronouns



An indefinite pronoun often does not refer to

a specific or definite person or thing. It usually

does not have a definite or specific antecedent

as a personal pronoun does. In the sentence,

“ Everybody will select another to help with

everything, ” the three italicized words are



all indefinite pronouns since they take

the place of a noun and do not refer to a

specifi c or definite person or thing.



These are all indefinite

Exercises: 9-12.

Exercises: 1,4, Yule

(1998), p. 96.

All the materials used during the class

and the data provided in the above

presentation were based on the

following references:

References:

Quirk, R. (1980).

A Grammar of Contemporary English

London: Longman.

Szymanek, B. (1998).

Introduction to Morphological Analysis.

Warszawa: PWN.

Yule, G. (1998). The study of language. Cambridge:

University Press.



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxUm-2x-

2dM&feature=player_embedded; 04.04.14;



http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=FhTgOQH7j24&feature=relmfu/04.04.14



www.english-grammar-revolution.com/

04.04.14

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