Lecture XI
Syntax II
Syntax II
December 13th, 2008
December 13th, 2008
Lecture XI
Syntax II
Syntax II
December 13th, 2008
December 13th, 2008
Structure of the lecture
Transformations: yes-no questions, wh
Transformations: yes-no questions, wh
movement, do insertion
movement, do insertion
Constraints on transformations
Constraints on transformations
Coordination
Coordination
Other types of syntactic analysis
Other types of syntactic analysis
Transformations
Transformations – various syntactic
Transformations – various syntactic
operations performed to make questions.
operations performed to make questions.
In some languages (e.g. Polish, Spanish)
In some languages (e.g. Polish, Spanish)
rising intonation is used to make
rising intonation is used to make
questions.
questions.
Basic operations include:
Basic operations include:
inversion in yes-no questions
inversion in yes-no questions
wh-movement
wh-movement
do insertion
do insertion
Yes-no questions
In many English sentences the main verb is
In many English sentences the main verb is
preceded by an auxiliary:
preceded by an auxiliary:
The girl can knit. He will change his job
The girl can knit. He will change his job
.
.
In such cases the process of making a yes-no
In such cases the process of making a yes-no
question consists of two steps:
question consists of two steps:
1.
1.
Forming a structure where the auxiliary occupies
Forming a structure where the auxiliary occupies
its normal Infl position.
its normal Infl position.
2.
2.
Applying a transformation rule that moves the
Applying a transformation rule that moves the
auxiliary to the left of the subject
auxiliary to the left of the subject
Can the girl ___ knit? Will he ___ change his job
Can the girl ___ knit? Will he ___ change his job
?
?
Deep and surface
structures
Sentences should be analysed be means of two distinct
Sentences should be analysed be means of two distinct
mechanisms, namely the XP rule and transformations.
mechanisms, namely the XP rule and transformations.
The XP rule determines the internal structure of
The XP rule determines the internal structure of
phrases
phrases
Transformations can modify tree structures by moving
Transformations can modify tree structures by moving
an element from one position to another.
an element from one position to another.
This transformational analysis shows that there are
This transformational analysis shows that there are
two levels of syntactic structure:
two levels of syntactic structure:
Deep structure – formed by the XP rule in accordance
Deep structure – formed by the XP rule in accordance
with the properties of the head
with the properties of the head
Surface structure – the final syntactic form of a
Surface structure – the final syntactic form of a
structure that results from the application of a
structure that results from the application of a
syntactic rule.
syntactic rule.
Wh movement
Which book should the student borrow?
Which book should the student borrow?
What can they talk about?
What can they talk about?
It can be argued that the deep structures of the
It can be argued that the deep structures of the
sentences above are:
sentences above are:
The student should borrow which book.
The student should borrow which book.
They can talk about what.
They can talk about what.
Since sentences such as the ones below are incomplete
Since sentences such as the ones below are incomplete
without a NP. after borrow and about
without a NP. after borrow and about
The students should borrow.
The students should borrow.
They can talk about.
They can talk about.
the wh phrases clearly fulfil the complement function in
the wh phrases clearly fulfil the complement function in
these sentences.
these sentences.
Wh movement – tree
structure
Do insertion rules
The men played a game of chess
The men played a game of chess
Since in the sentence Infl contains an abstract
Since in the sentence Infl contains an abstract
(invisible) tense marker, there is no element to
(invisible) tense marker, there is no element to
be moved.
be moved.
English circumvents the problem by using the
English circumvents the problem by using the
auxiliary did
auxiliary did
An auxiliary is inserted into the empty Infl
An auxiliary is inserted into the empty Infl
position
position
Constraints on
transformations
The no branch crossing restrtiction states that
The no branch crossing restrtiction states that
only adjacent constituents can form a
only adjacent constituents can form a
constituent, hence there are no discontinuous
constituent, hence there are no discontinuous
constituents.
constituents.
The
The
single mother restriction
single mother restriction
states that no
states that no
expression can be a constituent of two different
expression can be a constituent of two different
expressions unless one is a constituent of the
expressions unless one is a constituent of the
other, i.e. no node can have more than one
other, i.e. no node can have more than one
mother (Tajsner 2003: 27).
mother (Tajsner 2003: 27).
The coordinate structure constraint – no element
The coordinate structure constraint – no element
can be moved from a subject phrase.
can be moved from a subject phrase.
Illustration of constraint I
Illustration of constraint II
Illustration of constraint
III
No element can be removed from a
No element can be removed from a
coordinate structure (a phrase in
coordinate structure (a phrase in
which a word such as
which a word such as
and
and
or
or
or
or
joins
joins
together categories of the same type)
together categories of the same type)
The author may write [a story or a
The author may write [a story or a
poem].
poem].
What might the author write [a story
What might the author write [a story
or ___]?
or ___]?
Coordination
A common syntactic operation that consists in
A common syntactic operation that consists in
grouping together two or more categories of the
grouping together two or more categories of the
same type, e.g.
same type, e.g.
Coordination of NPs – [the boy] and [the girl]
Coordination of NPs – [the boy] and [the girl]
Coordination of VPs – [read] or [write]
Coordination of VPs – [read] or [write]
Coordination of PPs – [along the street] and [round
Coordination of PPs – [along the street] and [round
the corner]
the corner]
Coordination of Aps – [very beautiful] but
Coordination of Aps – [very beautiful] but
[unapproachable]
[unapproachable]
Coordination of Ss – [The man entered the
Coordination of Ss – [The man entered the
building] but [the woman waited in the car]
building] but [the woman waited in the car]
Other types of syntactic
analysis
Transformational syntax is not the only
Transformational syntax is not the only
type of syntactic analysis used in
type of syntactic analysis used in
contemporary linguistics. The
contemporary linguistics. The
alternative methods are:
alternative methods are:
-
relational analysis – focuses on
relational analysis – focuses on
grammatical relations such as subject
grammatical relations such as subject
and direct object
and direct object
-
functional analysis – concentrates on
functional analysis – concentrates on
the way in which syntactic structure is
the way in which syntactic structure is
used to communicate information
used to communicate information
The passive
The boy fed the dog.
The boy fed the dog.
The dog was fed by the boy.
The dog was fed by the boy.
The agent (doer) and the theme (the
The agent (doer) and the theme (the
entity affected by the verb)
entity affected by the verb)
The former sentence is active
The former sentence is active
because the agent is the subject,
because the agent is the subject,
whereas the latter is passive in
whereas the latter is passive in
recognition of the fact that the theme
recognition of the fact that the theme
is the subject
is the subject
Relational analysis
The key point of relational analysis is that some
The key point of relational analysis is that some
syntactic phenomena are best described in terms of
syntactic phenomena are best described in terms of
grammatical relations between subject and direct object
grammatical relations between subject and direct object
The English passive has two distinct properties:
The English passive has two distinct properties:
Contains the auxiliary be and the past participle
Contains the auxiliary be and the past participle
The order of the agent and theme in passive is the
The order of the agent and theme in passive is the
reverse of that found in active sentences.
reverse of that found in active sentences.
This seems to be a universal tendency (exceptions
This seems to be a universal tendency (exceptions
include Tzotzil and Mandarin Chinese)
include Tzotzil and Mandarin Chinese)
What all languages have in common is the fact that the
What all languages have in common is the fact that the
subject of the active sentence becomes part of a PP (a
subject of the active sentence becomes part of a PP (a
NP. with a preposition is said to be oblique)
NP. with a preposition is said to be oblique)
Functional analysis
Seeks to understand syntactic structures
Seeks to understand syntactic structures
in terms of their communicatice function
in terms of their communicatice function
Active and corresponding passive
Active and corresponding passive
structures have the same meaning, but
structures have the same meaning, but
they differ in how they present the
they differ in how they present the
situation
situation
Passive structures de-emphasise the role
Passive structures de-emphasise the role
of the agent and foreground the theme
of the agent and foreground the theme
Primary, secondary and functional
categories
Parts of speech – primary gramatical
Parts of speech – primary gramatical
categories
categories
Tense, mood, case, gender, person,
Tense, mood, case, gender, person,
voice – secondary grammatical
voice – secondary grammatical
categories
categories
The traditional syntactic notions of
The traditional syntactic notions of
subject, predicate, etc are referred to
subject, predicate, etc are referred to
as functional grammatical categories
as functional grammatical categories
Person
The category of person is definable with reference to
The category of person is definable with reference to
the notion of participant-roles.
the notion of participant-roles.
First person singular is used by the speaker to refer
First person singular is used by the speaker to refer
to him/herself, the second person singular is used to
to him/herself, the second person singular is used to
refer to the hearer and the third person is used to
refer to the hearer and the third person is used to
refer to persons or things other than the speaker and
refer to persons or things other than the speaker and
hearer, etc.
hearer, etc.
It is noteworthy that some languages distinguish
It is noteworthy that some languages distinguish
genders in the third person plural, e.g. oni – one, ellos
genders in the third person plural, e.g. oni – one, ellos
– ellas.
– ellas.
Person is considered to be a category of the verb and
Person is considered to be a category of the verb and
is marked in the inflectional form of the verb.
is marked in the inflectional form of the verb.
Number
Most languages distinguish between
Most languages distinguish between
singular and plural and as such is a
singular and plural and as such is a
category of the noun
category of the noun
Classical Greek, Sanskrit and some
Classical Greek, Sanskrit and some
Slavonic languages have a dual number
Slavonic languages have a dual number
used to refer to two objects
used to refer to two objects
Fijian also has a trial number in addition
Fijian also has a trial number in addition
to singular, dual and plural
to singular, dual and plural
Secondary recategorisation – pluralising
Secondary recategorisation – pluralising
uncountable nouns, e.g.
uncountable nouns, e.g.
different wines
different wines
Person and number
agreement
When one category is inflected to
When one category is inflected to
mark properties (e.g. person,
mark properties (e.g. person,
number) of another, the first category
number) of another, the first category
is said to agree with the second
is said to agree with the second
Since in Polish, Russian, Spanish
Since in Polish, Russian, Spanish
Italian and many other languages
Italian and many other languages
verbs are conjugated, there is no
verbs are conjugated, there is no
need to mention the subject.
need to mention the subject.
Gender
In the Indo-European language family the traditional
In the Indo-European language family the traditional
names for the genders are: masculine, feminine and
names for the genders are: masculine, feminine and
neuter
neuter
Languages differ considerably in this respect: the
Languages differ considerably in this respect: the
nouns of French, Italian and Spanish are classified
nouns of French, Italian and Spanish are classified
into to genders, those of Russian, Polish and German
into to genders, those of Russian, Polish and German
into three, those of English have just one.
into three, those of English have just one.
There is always some natural, semantic basis for this
There is always some natural, semantic basis for this
classification, not necessarily sex.
classification, not necessarily sex.
Some of the possible natural properties giving rise to
Some of the possible natural properties giving rise to
the classification are: shape, colour, edibility, etc.
the classification are: shape, colour, edibility, etc.
In Swahili and many other Bantu languages there are
In Swahili and many other Bantu languages there are
at least 6 genders
at least 6 genders
Case
A morphological category that encodes
A morphological category that encodes
information about an element’s
information about an element’s
grammatical role (subject, direct
grammatical role (subject, direct
object, etc.) (e.g. the difference
object, etc.) (e.g. the difference
between he and him)
between he and him)
Each case tends to have a typical
Each case tends to have a typical
syntactic function and occupy the
syntactic function and occupy the
same position in the grammatical
same position in the grammatical
structure of a language
structure of a language
Grammatical functions
Subjective
Subjective
(nominative)
(nominative)
Objective (accusative)
Objective (accusative)
Indirect objective
Indirect objective
(dative)
(dative)
Adnominal possessive
Adnominal possessive
(genitive)
(genitive)
instrumental’
instrumental’
Agentive
Agentive
comitative
comitative
Bill died
Bill died
John killed Bill
John killed Bill
John gave Tom the
John gave Tom the
book
book
It is Harry’s pencil
It is Harry’s pencil
John killed Bill with a
John killed Bill with a
knife
knife
Bill was killed by
Bill was killed by
John with a knife.
John with a knife.
John went to town
John went to town
with Marry
with Marry
Tense
Tense is a category that encodes the
Tense is a category that encodes the
time of an event with reference to the
time of an event with reference to the
moment of speaking
moment of speaking
English – past and non-past
English – past and non-past
Spanish – past, present and future
Spanish – past, present and future
ChiBemba – remote past (before
ChiBemba – remote past (before
yesterday), removed past (yesterday),
yesterday), removed past (yesterday),
near past (earlier today), immediate
near past (earlier today), immediate
past (just happened)
past (just happened)
Mood
Devices for marking sentences according to the speaker’s
Devices for marking sentences according to the speaker’s
commitment with respect to factual status of what he is saying
commitment with respect to factual status of what he is saying
(his emphatic certainty, his uncertainty or doubt, etc.)
(his emphatic certainty, his uncertainty or doubt, etc.)
The unmarked mood (usual, most frequent) is indicative or
The unmarked mood (usual, most frequent) is indicative or
declarative.
declarative.
Imperative sentences do not make statements but express
Imperative sentences do not make statements but express
orders or instructions. They are usually associated with the
orders or instructions. They are usually associated with the
second person.
second person.
Interrogative sentences – in many languages they have the
Interrogative sentences – in many languages they have the
same word order as declaratives but a different intonational
same word order as declaratives but a different intonational
pattern.
pattern.
Subjunctive mood – marks the attitude of the speaker, usually
Subjunctive mood – marks the attitude of the speaker, usually
connected with expressing wishes, possibility, neccesity and
connected with expressing wishes, possibility, neccesity and
obligation
obligation
Subject, predicate and
adjunct
The major constituents of a simple
The major constituents of a simple
declarative sentence are subject and
declarative sentence are subject and
predicate. These are necessary elements
predicate. These are necessary elements
of a sentence and form its nucleus.
of a sentence and form its nucleus.
Adjuncts are extraneuclear elements, i.e.
Adjuncts are extraneuclear elements, i.e.
their removal does not destroy the
their removal does not destroy the
grammaticality of a sentence.
grammaticality of a sentence.
[John] [killed Bill] [in Central Park] [on Sunday morning]
[John] [killed Bill] [in Central Park] [on Sunday morning]
.
.
S Pr Ad Ad
S Pr Ad Ad
Adjuncts vs. complements
The difference between an adjunct
The difference between an adjunct
and a complement boils down to the
and a complement boils down to the
fact that the former is an optional
fact that the former is an optional
element, while the latter and
element, while the latter and
obligatory constituent of a sentence.
obligatory constituent of a sentence.
The demonstration was on Sunday.
The demonstration was on Sunday.
The demonstration occurred on
The demonstration occurred on
Sunday.
Sunday.
Transitivity and ergavity
Transitivity – the action expressed by the
Transitivity – the action expressed by the
verb is ‘passed over’ from the doer to the
verb is ‘passed over’ from the doer to the
‘patient’.
‘patient’.
According to this criterion, verbs can be
According to this criterion, verbs can be
divided into intransitive (
divided into intransitive (
John died
John died
),
),
transitive (
transitive (
John killed Bill
John killed Bill
) and ditransitive
) and ditransitive
(
(
Tom gave Mary the book
Tom gave Mary the book
)
)
Ergativity – a system in which the subject of
Ergativity – a system in which the subject of
an intransitive verb and the direct object of a
an intransitive verb and the direct object of a
transitive verb have the same case-inflection.
transitive verb have the same case-inflection.