plik

311

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

Chapter 9
Long-Term HeaLTH effeCTs of

CHemiCaL THreaT agenTs

William J. Smith, P

D*; mattheW G. Clark, P

†

; thomaS B. talBot, mD, mS

‡

; PatriCia ann CaPle, rn

;

FreDeriCk r. SiDell, mD

;

and

CharleS G. hurSt, mD

inTroDUCTion

mUsTarD

Carcinogenesis

Chronic Pulmonary Disease

Chronic eye Disease

scarring of epithelial surfaces

Central nervous system

mutagenesis, Teratogenesis, and reproductive Toxicity

nerVe agenTs

Polyneuropathy

muscle necrosis

intermediate syndrome

neuropsychiatric effects

electroencephalographic abnormalities

Toxicological studies on nerve agents

CYaniDe

Physiology

Long-Term effects of an acute insult

Long-Term exposure

ToXiC inHaLaTion inJUrY

Phosgene

methyl isocyanate

Perfluoroisobutylene

oxides of nitrogen

Zinc oxide

sUmmarY

* Chief, Cellular and Molecular Biology Branch, Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 3100 Ricketts Point Road,

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5400

†

Major, Medical Service Corps, US Army; Chief, Neurobehavioral Toxicology Branch, Analytical Toxicology Division, US Army Medical Research

Institute of Chemical Defense, 3100 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5400

‡

Major, Medical Corps, US Army; Chief of Operations Branch, Chemical Casualty Care Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical

Defense, 3100 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5400

Lieutenant Colonel, Nurse Corps, US Air Force; Chemical Casualty Care Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 3100

Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5400

Formerly, Chief, Chemical Casualty Care Office, and Director, Medical Management of Chemical Casualties Course, US Army Medical Research Institute

of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5400; Deceased

Chief, Chemical Casualty Care Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 3100 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving

Ground, Maryland 21010-5400

312

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

inTroDUCTion

casualties.

4,5

one uS soldier developed skin blisters

8 hours after exploring an underground bunker.

his clinical findings and mass spectroscopy read-

ings (performed by a chemical detection team) from

his clothing and the bunker supported a diagnosis

of accidental mustard exposure, which was mild.

the exposure was not confirmed by later testing of

clothing samples, from which trace amounts of the

agent may have dissipated.

although the acute effects of the nerve agents

and of mustard agent are well known,

6,7

the long-

term effects after a single exposure or multiple

exposures are less well recognized. the nerve

agents are the subject of Chapter 5, nerve agents,

and mustard is discussed in Chapter 8, Vesicants.

this chapter focuses on the long-term effects of

exposure to these agents.

Chemical warfare agents were used extensively

in World War i (the united States had approxi-

mately 70,000 chemical casualties

) and have been

employed or allegedly employed in about a dozen

conflicts since then.

the most recent large-scale

use of these weapons was by iraq in its war with

iran in the late 1980s. During that conflict, iraq

used nerve agents and the vesicant mustard

; after

the war it maintained stockpiles of the two agents

and the capability to manufacture them. Before

coalition forces liberated kuwait early in 1991

during the Persian Gulf War, iraq was expected to

use these agents when attacked. no reports of the

use of chemical weapons during that conflict were

made, however, despite the vigilance of the press

corps and military medical personnel, who were

trained to report, investigate, and care for chemical

mUsTarD

two well-known forms of mustard exist. Sulfur

mustard (designated by the military as h or hD) was

first synthesized in the early 1800s, has been used in

warfare on several occasions, and is a major chemical

warfare agent.

nitrogen mustard is of more recent

origin, has not been used in warfare, and is a cancer

chemotherapeutic agent. in this chapter, the word

“mustard” will refer to sulfur mustard.

mustard is best known as a skin vesicant, but in

a series of iranian patients exposed to mustard, 95%

had airway effects, 92% had eye injuries, and 83% had

skin lesions.

after absorption, mustard, an extremely

potent alkylating agent, has the potential to damage

all cells and all organs.

absorption and systemic dis-

tribution of a significant amount of mustard damages

the bone marrow, where it destroys the precursor cells,

resulting in pancytopenia.

less commonly, clinical

effects are seen in the gastrointestinal tract (usually as

a terminal event)

9,10

and in the central nervous system

(CnS), with ill-defined symptoms such as lethargy

and apathy.

8,11

on the skin, a Ct (the concentration [C] of agent

vapor or aerosol in air, as mg/m

, multiplied by the

time [t] of exposure, in minutes) of 50 mg•min/m

a droplet of 10 µg of mustard is adequate to produce

vesication.

(one study

indicates that 8 of the 10 µg

evaporate and 1 µg enters the systemic circulation,

leaving 1 µg to produce the skin lesion.) eye lesions

can be produced by a Ct of 10 mg•min/m

airway

injury occurs at a Ct of 100 mg•min/m

or higher.

the mode of biological activity of mustard is less

well defined than that of the nerve agents. the initial

event is felt to be a reaction of mustard and deoxyri-

bonucleic acid (Dna) with subsequent damage to the

Dna. a series of intracellular events then occur, lead-

ing to cellular damage accompanied by inflammation

and cellular death. Cellular damage begins within 1

to 2 minutes of contact of mustard to skin or mucous

membranes.

the onset of clinical effects following

exposure to mustard occurs hours after the expo-

sure.

the delay usually ranges from 2 to 24 hours, is

inversely proportional to the amount of mustard, and

depends on other factors as well. no specific therapy

for mustard exposure exists.

Decontamination within

a minute or two will prevent or diminish the lesion,

and later care consists of symptomatic management

of the lesion.

Studies have established that the chemical agent

mustard has long-term sequelae. Both morgenstern

et al

and Buscher

emphasize that chronic low-dose

exposure over months to years in occupationally ex-

posed workers leads to chronic bronchitis, bronchial

asthma, hoarseness, aphonia, and hypersensitivity to

smoke, dust, and fumes. affected individuals typically

show persistent disability, with increased suscepti-

bility to respiratory tract infections and evidence of

bronchitis and bronchiectasis.

6,14,15

laboratory animal

studies

16–18

have found that mustard is mutagenic and

carcinogenic, and it is reported to be carcinogenic in

humans.

a 1993 study

sponsored by the Veterans admin-

istration and conducted by the institute of medicine

reported that a causal relationship exists between

mustard exposure and the following conditions:

313

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

• chronic respiratory diseases (asthma, chronic

bronchitis, emphysema, chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease, chronic laryngitis);

• respiratory cancers (nasopharyngeal, laryn-

geal, and lung);

• pigmentation abnormalities of the skin;

• chronic skin ulceration and scar formation;

• skin cancer;

• chronic conjunctivitis;

• recurrent corneal ulcerative disease;

• delayed recurrent keratitis;

• leukemia (nitrogen mustard);

• bone marrow depression and (resulting) im-

munosuppression;

• psychological disorders (mood disorders,

anxiety disorders, and traumatic stress dis-

orders); and

• sexual dysfunction as a result of scrotal and

penile scarring.

although laboratory evidence suggests that all of

these might occur, there is no data in humans to indicate

that all have occurred. the study report recognized

this by stating, “it is also possible that skin cancers

did not occur in the studied populations…”

and

“…underrepresented in human studies is information

on chronic or delayed effects [on the bone marrow and

immune system].”

the report also pointed out that

the psychological disorders were from the stress of the

exposure and not from the agent, and there seemed to

be no data on sexual dysfunction. moreover, it is not

clear from the report whether these effects follow one

or multiple mustard exposures.

all human studies dealing with chronic mustard

disease processes are retrospective and fraught with

the problems inherent in retrospective studies. these

problems include bias in the sampling populations;

lack of epidemiological controls for the effects of

smoking, lifestyle, race, gender, age, or exposure to

other chemicals; differential quality of available health

care; and incorrect diagnosis.

these limitations make

absolute interpretation of the studies difficult.

over the past several years, iranian investigators

have provided a number of papers that study the late

toxic effects of mustard exposure in patients 16 to

20 years after the iran-iraq conflicts of the 1980s.

20–26

Balali-mood and hefazi

have summarized most of

these data in a comparative review of early and late

toxic effects of mustard.

Carcinogenesis

mustard is an alkylating agent similar to drugs

that have been used in cancer chemotherapy, such

as nitrogen mustard, Cytoxan (Bristol-myers Squibb

oncology Division, Princeton, nJ), and methotrexate.

Since Dna is one of mustard’s most sensitive targets, it

is not surprising that carcinogenesis and radiomimetic

effects are seen.

in studies

18,28,29

conducted from 1949 through 1953

by We heston with mustard and strain-a mice (im-

munocompromised), the occurrence of pulmonary

tumors was easily demonstrated. Studies conducted at

edgewood arsenal, maryland, examined the carcino-

genic effects on rats in whole-body chamber exposures.

mustard readily produced skin malignancies in rats,

but no excess tumors at other sites.

Subcutaneous

injections totaling about 6 mg/kg of mustard produced

sarcomas and other malignancies at injection sites in

C3h, C3hf, and strain-a mice, but did not result in an

increase of malignancies at other sites.

human data on the carcinogenicity of mustard are

from (a) battlefield exposures, (b) accidents, and (c)

workers in chemical factories. Both British and ameri-

can studies have investigated the increased incidence

of pulmonary carcinoma arising from World War i

battlefield exposure. all are difficult to interpret, ow-

ing to the lack of controls for age, chronic pulmonary

disease, cigarette smoking, and other factors that might

have affected the outcome.

31–33

in contrast to battlefield exposures, studies of fac-

tory workers involved in the production of mustard

have shown a definite link between prolonged ex-

posure to low doses of mustard and cancer.

Several

studies

17,34–38

have provided evidence of an increased

risk of respiratory tract cancers in factory workers.

easton et al

found a 45% increase in deaths due to

lung cancer, a 170% increase in death from cancer of

the larynx, and a 450% increase in deaths from cancer

of the pharynx, compared with expected deaths in the

general population. the risks for cancer of the pharynx

and lung were significantly related to the duration of

employment at the factory. For reasons analyzed more

fully elsewhere,

the association between a single

exposure to mustard and airway cancer is not as well

established.

Japanese studies suggest a greater potential risk of

cancer from mustard than do the British studies. easton

et al

and manning et al

suggest that the difference is

related to the design of the Japanese studies and to the

lower industrial hygiene standards in Japan at the time

of the studies.

the weight of the evidence—cellular,

epidemiological, and toxicological—indicates a causal

association between mustard exposure and the occur-

rence of excess respiratory cancer, skin cancer, and

possibly leukemia. inadequate exposure information

limits accurate estimation of the cancer excesses that

may be expected.

314

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

the iranian data suggest that surviving victims of

mustard exposure during the iran-iraq War are ex-

hibiting carcinoma of the nasopharynx, bronchogenic

carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma of the stomach, as

well as acute myeloblastic and lymphoblastic leuke-

mia.

Definitive studies of the nature and types of

cancers seen in this patient population have yet to be

published.

Chronic Pulmonary Disease

inhalation of mustard vapor primarily affects the

laryngeal and tracheobronchial mucosa.

evidence

suggests that mustard inhalation causes sustained

respiratory difficulties even after the acute lesions

have healed. Clinical follow-ups on 200 iranian sol-

diers who were severely injured by mustard during

the iran–iraq War indicate that about one third had

experienced persistent respiratory effects 2 years after

initial exposure. reported problems included chronic

bronchitis, asthma, rhinopharyngitis, tracheobronchi-

tis, laryngitis, recurrent pneumonia, bronchiectasis,

and in some cases, severe, unrelenting tracheobron-

chial stenosis.

22,40–43

of the British soldiers exposed to mustard in World

War i, 12% were awarded disability compensation for

respiratory disorders that were believed to be from

mustard exposures during combat.

Bronchitis was

the major complaint; emphysema and asthma were

also reported. however, epidemiological studies of the

relationship between agent exposure and subsequent

respiratory disability were severely limited for several

reasons. often, individuals had experienced multiple

combined exposures to mustard and other chemical

agents. also, influenza and other respiratory ailments

frequently made diagnosis of the mustard vapor in-

jury difficult.

Finally, no epidemiological controls for

smoking or for postexposure environmental and oc-

cupational histories were included in the studies.

Wada et al

suggest a causal relationship between

mustard exposure and subsequent bronchitis, tuber-

culosis, and pneumonia in factory workers involved in

the production of mustard. again, morgenstern et al

and Buscher

emphasize that chronic low-dose expo-

sure over prolonged periods (presumably months to

years) leads to lingering bronchitis, bronchial asthma,

hoarseness, aphonia, and hypersensitivity to smoke,

dust, and fumes. affected individuals typically show

persistent disability, with increased susceptibility to

respiratory tract infections and evidence of bronchitis

and bronchiectasis.

little contemporary information regarding the

pathogenesis of the respiratory lesions is available, and

few data from people or animals exposed to nonlethal

concentrations of mustard vapor exist. even fewer

studies investigate the histopathology of the recovery

process in animals exposed to mustard.

however,

two studies

9,46

conducted during World War i suggest

that low-level exposure or survivable exposures in

dogs and rabbits may produce scar tissue following

small ulcerations in the trachea and larynx, causing

contractions of these areas. the more severe respiratory

tract lesions described in animals exposed to mustard

vapor appear to be similar in type and location to those

described in humans.

the iranian database shows that in the 3-year

postexposure time frame the most severely affected

patients demonstrated restrictive pulmonary disease

patterns. By 16 years postexposure, these patterns

had become obstructive in nature.

Sixteen to twenty

years after exposure, the main respiratory complica-

tions were chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,

bronchiectasis, asthma, large airway narrowing, and

pulmonary fibrosis.

Chronic eye Disease

individuals who sustain acute ocular injury from

high-dose mustard exposure may experience diffi-

culties even after the initial effects of the injury have

subsided.

47–50

recurrent or persistent corneal ulcer-

ation can occur after latent periods of 10 to 25 years.

this delayed keratopathy

49,51

may be accompanied by

chronic conjunctivitis and corneal clouding. anecdotal

accounts suggest that low-dose exposure also causes

increased sensitivity to later exposures to mustard,

although the existence of increased sensitivity is dif-

ficult to substantiate with available scientific evidence.

about 10% of those with eye injury in World War i had

severely affected eyes, with both the cornea and the

conjunctiva being involved. members of this group

developed the “delayed keratitis” noted above 8 to

25 years later.

the 1993 institute of medicine study

of the ef-

fects of mustard and lewisite exposure on the health

of veterans concluded that acute, severe injury of the

eye from mustard might result in recurrent corneal

ulcerative disease for the remainder of the patient’s

life, with a maximum incidence occurring 15 to 20

years after the injury. Based on extensive data, the

study concluded that a causal relationship between

severe exposure to mustard and the development of

delayed recurrent keratitis exists.

the study also

found a causal relationship between exposure to mus-

tard and the development of prolonged, intractable

conjunctivitis.

315

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

scarring of epithelial surfaces

residual cutaneous lesions most often take the form

of scars that result from uncontrolled fibroblastic activ-

ity and overgrowth of connective tissue during the pro-

cess of wound repair. even wounds that are well cared

for on joints and sites that are not easily immobilized,

such as shoulders, knees, elbows, and male genitalia,

often heal with severe residual scar formation. Pigmen-

tation is often altered (either increased or decreased) at

these sites, although the degree of alteration does not

differ from that observed in injuries caused by burns

and other forms of physical and chemical insult. in the

absence of melanocyte destruction, hyperpigmentation

predominates. if melanocytes are locally destroyed,

and inward migration from destroyed adnexal struc-

tures does not occur, depigmentation predominates.

in a prospective study of delayed toxic effects from

mustard exposure, Balali-mood

followed a group

of iranian solders exposed to mustard gas during

the iran–iraq War. after 2 years, 41% of the exposed

victims were experiencing pigmentary disorders.

any previously injured sites have been described as

being “sensitive” to subsequent mechanical injury.

these sites may show recurrent blisters after mild

injury.

renshaw

reported on the development of

contact sensitivity in humans following localized ex-

posure to liquid mustard. Cutaneous sensitivity may

be seen within 8 days following the first application,

and a more pronounced effect is seen after 4 weeks.

the incidence of hypersensitivity varies between 30%

and 65% of exposed individuals. Sensitivity may be

immediate hives or delayed dermatitis and appears

to last a lifetime. Sensitivity may also take the form of

flares of old, healed mustard injury sites after a fresh

application of mustard to normal, unaffected skin.

the occurrence of skin cancers at the site of old scar

formation is an acknowledged biological phenom-

enon.

53,54

Cutaneous cancers resulting from acute

mustard exposure usually localize in scars, whereas

those caused by chronic exposure can occur on any

exposed site.

in its study of mustard and lewisite effects,

the

institute of medicine concluded that the evidence

indicates a causal relation between acute, severe

exposure to mustard agents and increased pigmenta-

tion and depigmentation in human skin; acute and

severe exposure can lead to chronic skin ulceration,

scar formation, and the development of cutaneous

cancer (but see the caveat in the previous discussion

of this report’s conclusions); and chronic exposure to

minimally toxic and even subtoxic doses can lead to

skin pigmentation abnormalities and cutaneous can-

cer. among the iranian victims at 16 to 20 years after

exposure, the most common skin lesions, by order of

occurrence, were hyperpigmentation, erythematous

popular rash, dry skin, multiple cherry angioma, at-

rophy, and hyperpigmentation.

Central nervous system

excitation of the CnS after mustard exposure, re-

sulting in convulsions and followed by CnS depres-

sion, has been reported.

Convulsions and cardiac

irregularities appear to occur only after extremely

acute, high doses,

which are probably attainable

only in laboratory settings.

mustard casualties of the

iran–iraq War did not display severe CnS or cardiac

abnormalities.

acute neuropsychiatric symptoms, including severe

depression and changes in mentation, are common

after high-dose exposures to mustard agents. these

symptoms are produced both directly by the chemical

and secondarily to other physiological changes.

Fol-

low-up of workers in German chemical warfare plants

showed a high prevalence of various neurological dis-

orders, including impaired concentration, diminished

libido, and sensory hypersensitivity.

to what extent

mustard agents were responsible is not clear because

multiple exposures to other agents, including nerve

agents, were known to have occurred.

Balali-mood et al

conducted studies on peripheral

neuropathic processes in victims exhibiting severe late

manifestations of mustard poisoning using electro-

myography and nerve conduction velocity. Seventy

percent of the patients demonstrated disturbances

in the peripheral nervous system. nerve conduction

abnormalities were more common in sensory nerves

and more prevalent in lower extremities than in up-

per extremities. Forty percent of the patients exhibited

incomplete interference patterns in electromyographic

studies.

mutagenesis, Teratogenesis, and reproductive

Toxicity

mustard causes cross-linking of Dna and is known

to alkylate Dna at the o

position of guanine. Some

authors

59,60

suggest that intrastrand Dna cross-links,

rather than interstrand cross-links,

61,62

are the lesions

primarily responsible for producing chromosomal

aberrations. mustard causes chromosomal breakage

and induces sister chromatid exchanges in a wide

variety of cells including mammalian cells.

the in-

ternational agency for research on Cancer in lyon,

France (an agency of the World health organization),

316

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

has classified mustard as a human carcinogen based

on the findings of epidemiological studies. taken

together, these observations highlight the potential of

this compound to induce genetic damage and become

a long-term health hazard. the agency also suggests

that mustard could be a reproductive toxin.

the 1993 institute of medicine report

noted that the

quality of human data on the reproductive toxicity of

mustard is quite poor. Follow-up of the occupational

or battlefield cohorts to determine the nature of any

reproductive toxicity or teratogenic effects attributable

to these exposures has been insufficient. the evidence

suggests a causal relationship between mustard expo-

sure and reproductive toxicity in laboratory animals,

but the database is far too small and unreliable to

allow a clear understanding of human reproductive

risk from exposure to mustard. mustard can cause

genetic alterations in the sperm of male rats after

inhalation or gastric exposure, but rodent studies

showed that mustards are not detectable teratogens in

animals. the human data are insufficient for reliable

interpretation.

nerVe agenTs

nerve agents are esters of phosphonic acid and are

extremely potent chemicals. their military designa-

tions are Ga (tabun), GB (sarin), GD (soman), GF

(cyclosarin), and VX. the agent VX has no common

name. in contrast to the information available on both

short- and long-term effects of mustard in humans

from its battlefield use in World War i and the iran–iraq

War, and from experimental studies during the World

War i and World War ii periods,

limited data from the

battlefield use of nerve agents are available.

the toxic effects of nerve agents are caused primar-

ily by their inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (aChe)

and the resulting accumulation of acetylcholine.

other biological activities of these agents have been

described, but the relation of these activities to clinical

effects has not been recognized. For example, some

nerve agents affect ionic channels,

and all affect

structures other than aChe.

Several milligrams of

VX, the least volatile nerve agent, absorbed through

the skin causes clinical signs and symptoms.

68,69

a Ct

of 2 to 3 mg•min/m

of sarin produces miosis and

rhinorrhea in humans.

this Ct can be attained with

exposure to a concentration of 2 mg/m

for 1 minute

or a concentration of 0.05 mg/m

for 40 minutes. the

initial signs of exposure to small quantities of agent va-

por are miosis, rhinorrhea, and airway constriction.

7,71

larger amounts cause loss of consciousness, seizure

activity,

cessation of respiration

and cardiac activity,

and death, unless there is medical intervention. effects

occur within minutes of exposure,

71,72

and after a large

exposure (Ct of 10–200 mg•min/m

, depending on

the agent

), death occurs in 10 to 15 minutes. after

exposure to a sublethal amount on the skin (1–3 mg),

the onset time for clinical effects may be hours.

68,69

the initial effect is usually vomiting, which may be

followed by muscular weakness. a lethal amount of

VX on the skin causes effects within several minutes,

and death occurs shortly afterwards.

treatment consists of the administration of atropine,

a drug that blocks the effects of the excess acetylcho-

line at muscarinic cholinergic receptor sites, and of

2-pyridine aldoxime methyl chloride (2-Pam Cl, also

called 2-pralidoxime chloride), an oxime that removes

the agent from aChe, thereby reactivating the enzyme

after poisoning by some agents.

2-Pam Cl, however,

is ineffective against soman intoxication

because of

soman’s rapid aging. (aging is the process by which

one of the nerve agent’s alkyl groups leaves the mol-

ecule after binding to aChe. after dealkylation, an

aChe-bound nerve agent molecule can no longer be

removed from the enzyme by an oxime. the aging

half-time of soman is about 2 min.) Ventilatory sup-

port is necessary when breathing has stopped or is

inadequate,

71,72

and the anticonvulsant diazepam may

need to be administered.

information on the effects of nerve agents in humans

comes from the accidental exposure of hundreds of

people mildly or moderately exposed while working

with nerve agents and from a handful of workers who

had severe exposures. investigational studies carried

out in hundreds of people also provide information.

more recently, terrorists used sarin in two separate

attacks in matsumoto and tokyo, Japan, in 1994 and

1995. these attacks have provided a great deal of in-

formation on both the short- and long-term impact of

organophosphorus nerve agents in humans. informa-

tion on the effects of organophosphorus insecticides

is also included so that medical officers can compare

and contrast the two. Because both nerve agents and

insecticides are organophosphorus compounds, people

often tend to extrapolate the biological effects of one

to the other, but in fact there are many differences be-

tween the two. the authors of some reports did not rec-

ognize the differences and grouped them together.

75,76

although the organophosphate insecticides are

similar to nerve agents in inhibiting cholinesterase,

they differ in other characteristics. For example, the

cholinergic crisis caused by acute, severe intoxica-

tion with the insecticides is generally much longer

than that caused by nerve agents (days to weeks for

317

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

insecticides

77–79

vs hours for nerve agents

71,72

). not only

do insecticides differ from nerve agents, but they also

differ among themselves in some of their biological

effects; for example, some cause polyneuropathy, and

others do not.

Because of these differences, all of

which have probably not been defined, the similarity

between the effects of insecticides in humans and the

effects of nerve agents in humans cannot be assumed.

(as stated earlier, insecticides are included here only

so that the similarities and differences can be noted;

readers should be careful not to confuse the two.)

Polyneuropathy

Insecticides

organophosphorus ester–induced delayed neuro-

toxicity (oPiDn) has been recognized as a clinical syn-

drome in humans and animals for over 50 years. after

exposure to certain organophosphates, incoordination,

ataxia, spasticity, and flaccid paralysis develop over the

following 1 to 3 weeks; the paralysis begins distally in

the lower limbs and eventually spreads to the upper

limbs. Part or all of the lesion may be reversible, but in

its most severe form it can cause lifetime quadriplegia.

Structural changes begin at the distal, nonmyelin-

ated portion of the nerve, followed by progressive

demyelination associated with degeneration of more

proximal nerve segments.

this syndrome was initially

associated with ingestion of triorthocresyl phosphate

rather than an insecticide. after organophosphate

insecticides became available, the syndrome was seen

after exposure to some, but not all, of them.

the best animal model for studying the effects of

exposure to organophosphates is the chicken.

80,81

ex-

tensive studies have been performed to elucidate the

mechanism of action that causes oPiDn and to screen

new organophosphate insecticides for this effect.

79,80

the exact mechanism of action is still unknown, but

much evidence suggests that the inhibition of neuro-

toxic esterase in nerve tissue is involved.

adminis-

tration of oximes and atropine has no effect on the

production of this neurotoxicity.

oPiDn is not seen with all insecticides.

79,80

Gener-

ally, insecticides that have been shown to cause poly-

neuropathy have been removed from the market; only

those that have been demonstrated not to cause this

effect in animal models are available.

Nerve Agents

nerve agents have caused polyneuropathy in ani-

mals only at doses many fold greater than the lD

(the dose [D] that is lethal [l] to 50% of the exposed

population)—doses that require massive pretreatment

and therapy to ensure survival of the animals. Davies

et al

produced polyneuropathy in chickens with sarin

only at 60 or more times the lD

. (the animals were

protected with atropine and oxime to permit survival.)

neuropathy was not detected at 8 times the lD

of so-

man. Davies’s group also detected no polyneuropathy

at doses of VX of 45 µmol/kg.

in another study,

polyneuropathy was found

in hens after 30 to 60 times the lD

for sarin was

administered, but not at 38 times the lD

for soman

or 82 times the lD

for tabun. VX was not examined

in this study because its ability to inhibit neurotoxic

esterase is negligible. at 120 times the acute lD

hens, soman and tabun caused polyneuropathy in

some surviving animals.

Cyclosarin is a stronger

inhibitor of neurotoxic esterase in vitro than the other

nerve agents.

however, cyclosarin, in addition to

tabun, soman, and VX, did not cause polyneuropathy

at very high doses.

Polyneuropathy has not been noted in the handful

of humans severely exposed to nerve agents or in the

hundreds of humans with mild-to-moderate effects

from nerve agents. however, one report details a case

study in which a patient who survived for 15 months

following the tokyo sarin terrorist attack showed distal

sensory axonopathy on postmortem analysis.

the pa-

tient survived the initial attack, but was maintained on

mechanical ventilation and total parenteral nutrition

until he died of pneumonia. he initially showed signs

of tremor and decerebrate rigidity, which changed to

flaccid quadriparesis 6 months following the sarin in-

toxication. he then developed distal-dominant, severe

muscle atrophy with clawhand and foot drop defor-

mity. the postmortem analysis confirmed the distal

axonopathy as well as severe hypoxic-ischemic CnS

damage. obvious limitations of this report include the

fact that the patient was maintained for an extended

period with life support and was largely immobile,

and there is no information regarding the total sarin

exposure the man received. nevertheless, the case

report is one of the first to show temporally delayed

distal neuropathy in humans. Studies using smaller

doses of tabun, sarin, and soman are described in the

toxicology section later in this chapter.

muscle necrosis

Insecticides

necrosis of rat skeletal muscle in the region of the

motor endplate has been noted after administration

of cholinesterase-inhibiting compounds in amounts

sufficient to cause signs.

Swelling, eosinophilia, and

318

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

loss of striations of myofibers can be observed by light

microscopy in the motor endplate regions as early as

2 hours after administration of the organophosphate,

and the lesion is fully developed in 12 to 24 hours. in

affected fibers, the sarcolemma remains intact and is

the focus of later repair of the fiber. recovery begins in

2 days and is complete by 2 weeks. the lesion can be

prevented or lessened by denervation or by adminis-

tration of atropine and oxime within the first 2 hours;

the lesion is more severe in muscles of high activity,

such as the diaphragm, and in type ii fast-twitch

muscle fibers.

muscle necrosis was seen in the diaphragm of a man

who died after drinking parathion. no cholinesterase

could be demonstrated in the myoneural junctions of

any muscle, but necrosis was limited to the diaphragm.

each focus involved one to four sarcomeres of both

types of myofibers, varying from acute swelling to

vacuolar disintegration of the fibers. the nerve endings

in the segmental necrotic zones were degenerated.

Nerve Agents

the circumscribed muscular necrosis seen with

insecticides has also been seen after sarin

92,93

and

tabun

administration to experimental animals. Soman

produced necrosis in one study,

but not in another.

on stimulation of the nerve, the muscle was unable

to sustain a tetanic contraction at frequencies of 100

and 200 hz.

intermediate syndrome

Insecticides

a second type of delayed neurological manifestation

of organophosphate insecticide poisoning is the “in-

termediate syndrome.” in a series of 200 consecutive

cases of organophosphate insecticide poisoning, 36

patients developed a weakness of the proximal muscles

of the limbs, cranial nerve weaknesses, bilateral py-

ramidal tract signs, and areflexia.

this disturbance

began 12 to 84 hours after hospital admission. in most

cases, the cholinergic crisis had resolved, and the 21

patients who survived recovered completely by 96

hours. the lesion was unresponsive to large amounts

of atropine; 2-Pam Cl was not available. the authors

of the report

divided the signs of organophosphate

intoxication into two groups, which they called type

i and type ii. according to these authors, type i signs

were muscarinic in nature and were amenable to at-

ropine therapy, whereas type ii signs were nicotinic

in nature, appeared 12 to 48 hours after exposure, and

were resistant to atropine therapy.

ten additional cases were later described.

these

patients received atropine (up to 40 mg every 24 h)

and 2-Pam Cl (1 g every 12 hour for 24 to 48 h) during

the cholinergic-crisis phase. about 24 to 96 hours after

poisoning, the 10 patients developed a syndrome that

included palsies of cranial nerves iii, iV, Vi, Vii, and

X; weakness of the respiratory muscles (four patients

required immediate intubation and assisted ventila-

tion at the onset of the syndrome); weakness of the

proximal limb muscles; and pyramidal tract signs.

recovery occurred in 5 to 18 days. electromyography

in limb muscles and nerve conduction were normal.

tetanic stimulation of the abductor pollicis brevis

showed a marked fade with no posttetanic facilita-

tion. the authors of the report

called this condition

the “intermediate syndrome,” meaning that it is in-

termediate between the acute cholinergic effects and

the later, well-recognized delayed polyneuropathy.

Consequently, the term intermediate syndrome, rather

than type ii signs, has been adopted.

two additional cases of this syndrome were reported

several years later; both patients required ventilatory

support during the paralytic phase.

in another series,

29 of 90 patients with organophosphate poisoning

had the intermediate syndrome.

tetanic fade with no

posttetanic facilitation was maximal between days 4 and

6, and the response to electrical stimulation had returned

to normal by 8 to 10 days. the author suggested that a

neuromuscular junction defect was responsible for the

lesion. other cases have since been reported

100–103

and

in some, the weakness or paralysis lasted for days to

weeks. lack of early oxime therapy had been thought

to contribute to the development of the syndrome,

104

but

it has occurred with adequate amounts of oxime.

100,101,105

the cause of this neuromuscular dysfunction has not

been elucidated, nor has an animal model been de-

scribed. intermediate syndrome may be related to the

myopathy seen at the neuromuscular junction.

Nerve Agents

the occurrence of the intermediate syndrome fol-

lowing nerve agent exposure is not well character-

ized.

106

in one experiment, single fiber electromyogra-

phy was used to examine the syndrome in volunteers

exposed to a low level of sarin.

107

Significant, albeit

small, changes in single fiber electromyography were

observed at 3 hours and at 3 days following exposure.

however, the electromyographic changes did not ac-

company clinical neuromuscular symptoms. the small

changes observed were resolved when the volunteers

were evaluated 2 years later.

another study examined the delayed neurotoxic

effects of repeated sarin inhalation in mice.

108

Female

319

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

Swiss mice received repeated whole-body exposure

to 5 mg/m

, 20 minutes daily for 10 days. the mice

were evaluated daily for changes in gross behavior,

and 4 days following the last exposure, the mice were

examined histopathologically. the sarin-exposed mice

exhibited muscular weakness in the limbs, twitching,

and slight ataxis on the 14th day (4 days after the final

exposure), despite clear anti-aChe signs. the histopa-

thology results showed depressed neurotoxic esterase

activity in the CnS and platelets, and axonal degenera-

tion was observed in the spinal cord. the time frame of

onset of the observed results is consistent with the in-

termediate syndrome, but could potentially have been

oPiDn. the report did not follow mice past the 4th day

postexposure, so it is unclear whether the symptoms

would have resolved. overall, there is limited infor-

mation regarding the occurrence of the intermediate

syndrome following nerve agent exposure.

neuropsychiatric effects

many neuropsychiatric problems have been associ-

ated with single and repeated exposures to insecticides

and nerve agents. in many cases these symptoms were

studied shortly after the patients were exposed, and

the duration of the problems was not noted. however,

several studies examined the effects long after the acute

insult. these effects include disturbances in memory,

sleep, and vigilance; depression; posttraumatic stress

disorder (PtSD); anxiety and irritability; and problems

with information processing. in cases of exposure to

nerve agents, the traumatic impact of experiencing

a chemical warfare attack potentially confounds the

evaluation of the long-term health effects of nerve

agent exposure alone. thus, whether caused by the

direct effects of the chemical compound or by the event

itself, the neuropsychological effects presented will still

require attention by the attending clinician.

Insecticides

in 1961 Gershon and Shaw

109

described 16 patients

with psychiatric problems who had been exposed to

pesticides repeatedly over a 1.5- to 10-year period. Five

were schizophrenic, seven were severely depressed,

one was in a state of fugue, and all had impairment of

memory and concentration. these conditions followed

multiple symptomatic exposures to organophosphate

insecticides, and the patients recovered within 6 to 12

months after the onset of their signs and symptoms.

Because neuropsychiatric sequelae of organophos-

phate insecticides had not been widely recognized, the

authors suggested that these sequelae might be more

common than generally thought.

Gershon and Shaw’s report was criticized

110,111

because no information on the exposure history was

included; because few objective measures, either of

mental status or of blood cholinesterase, were used;

and because the conditions reported had not been

reported in much larger series of patients exposed

to organophosphate insecticides. later studies failed

to find evidence of thought disorders after pesticide

exposure,

112,113

although diisopropyl fluorophosphate

administration aggravated psychosis.

114

less severe

neuropsychiatric manifestations of organophosphate

insecticide exposure, occurring either acutely or as

sequelae, have been subsequently reported.

Durham et al

115

examined 187 individuals who were

routinely involved in pesticide work (eg, crop dusting)

for mental alertness. the groups were people with

varying degrees of exposure to organic phosphorus

pesticides and the control group were persons with

no known previous exposure to these materials. the

subjects were studied, using a complex reaction time,

(a) at the time of maximal work with insecticides and

(b) during “nonexposure” periods. Control subjects

were studied at similar times. Both groups, subjects

and controls, did better on tests during nonexposure

periods, and both groups scored poorer during the

higher risk periods. the performance of the exposed

subjects improved during and after convalescence.

the authors emphasized repeatedly that mental ef-

fects were not seen in the absence of clinical signs of

poisoning. Problems with memory after insecticide

exposure were reported by Gershon and Shaw

109

(the

problems resolved 6 to 12 months after the acute expo-

sure) and by metcalf and holmes

113

(the patients were

studied more than a year after exposure). in the latter

study, testing was performed to corroborate the report

of memory deficit. other reports have mentioned

memory problems, but they provide few data.

Steenland et al

116

examined 128 agricultural workers

who had been previously poisoned with at least one

organophosphate pesticide between 1982 and 1990.

Subjects were evaluated using a neurological test bat-

tery that included assessments of mood, motor speed,

sustained visual attention, hand-eye coordination,

simple reaction time, coding speed, visual memory,

serial digit learning and memory, dexterity, and pursuit

aiming. total results showed consistent and significant

impairments in mood scale, sustained visual attention,

and coding speed. the researchers further performed

a nerve conduction and vibrotactile sensitivity assess-

ment of the same population, observing that nerve

conductions were normal, but vibrotactile sensitivity

was reduced. together the results indicated that central

and peripheral neurological damage related to organo-

phosphorus pesticide poisoning likely occurred.

320

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

anxiety, irritability, giddiness, tension, and rest-

lessness persisting for months after exposure to

insecticides were reported by namba et al

117

and

by Gershon and Shaw.

109

Both studies emphasized

that these effects occurred only in patients who

had demonstrated symptoms of exposure. metcalf

and holmes

113

reported similar effects, but did not

indicate their duration or the time after exposure

that they occurred. Depression has been reported

117

from insecticide exposure immediately following the

acute symptomatic exposure, but it did not persist.

more prolonged (6 to 12 months) depression has been

reported

109

after insecticide exposure. in contrast,

levin et al

112

found no evidence of depression using

a structured interview and a depression inventory in

asymptomatic workers with histories of chronic expo-

sure. Sleep disturbances, such as excessive dreaming,

nightmares, and insomnia, generally of relatively

short duration (days to weeks), after insecticide ex-

posure have also been reported.

113,117

Psychomotor performance has been evaluated after

exposure to insecticides. rowntree et al

114

found that

daily administration of an organophosphate com-

pound caused slowness in thought and decreased

performance speed. metcalf and holmes

113

noted

slowed thinking and calculation in patients who had

been exposed to insecticides more than a year previ-

ously. Difficulties in concentration and vigilance have

been reported after insecticide exposure,

109,113,115,117,118

although some of the studies indicate marginal de-

creases, and others lack objective data (eg, Gershon and

Shaw

109

). in all of the cases, the impairment occurred

after an episode in which the patient had exhibited

symptoms of exposure to the compound.

tabershaw and Cooper

119

evaluated 87 patients

who had been exposed to an organophosphate in-

secticide more than 3 years previously and who had

had persistent complaints for over a 6-month period.

the symptoms involved the visual, gastrointestinal,

cardiorespiratory, and neuropsychiatric systems. in

each instance, the complaint could be attributed to

other problems; for example, several cases of visual

blurring were due to presbyopia, a case of chronic

abdominal pain was due to a peptic ulcer, and in one

case, nervousness and tremors were due to chronic

alcoholism.

in a more recent study, rosenstock et al

120

examined

38 patients more than a year after their hospitalization

for organophosphate insecticide exposure. Control

subjects had also worked with organophosphate in-

secticides but had not had a symptomatic exposure.

the poisoned group did significantly less well than

the control group on tests assessing a wide variety of

neuropsychological functions, including auditory at-

tention, visual memory, visuomotor speed, sequencing

and problem solving, and motor steadiness, reaction,

and dexterity.

Nerve Agents

Bowers et al

reported that subjects had difficulty

with memory for 24 hours after they were given VX,

but had no evidence of major thought disorders. other

investigators

noted depression acutely after nerve

agent exposure, but the depression did not persist.

Sleep disturbances were also short-lived.

68,121,122

after

exposure to VX, subjects had decreased performance

on an arithmetic test, decreased reading comprehen-

sion, and decreased ability to play chess.

in some

instances these performance decrements occurred

before other signs of intoxication or in the absence of

other signs. impaired concentration and vigilance have

been reported after nerve agent exposure.

121

these ef-

fects can persist for several weeks after symptomatic

exposure to nerve agents.

123

a report

122

of 297 cases of accidental exposure to

nerve agent among manufacturing workers indicated

that about 20% of the individuals had neuropsychiatric

effects such as disturbed sleep, disturbance in mood,

irritability, nervousness, disturbance in ability to think

clearly, absentmindedness, fatigability, and lighthead-

edness. the duration of these effects was not indicated,

but the report noted that supervisors and coworkers

detected these effects when the casualties returned to

work prematurely.

a single subject, a biochemist exposed to soman,

was evaluated at 2 weeks, 4 months, and 6 months after

exposure, using a psychiatric interview and a battery

of psychological tests.

the person had been severely

exposed, requiring ventilatory support for about 30

minutes. on initial testing, he had high scores on the

hypochondriasis and hysteria scales on the minnesota

multiphasic Personality inventory; these improved on

later testing. on the initial testing he did poorly on a

visual retention task, word association proverbs, and

an ink blot test. While taking the tests, he used delaying

tactics, had difficulty generating verbal associations,

and failed the harder proverbs. results on the later

tests were much improved and indicated full use of

his intellectual faculties. in another case, a physician

was exposed to sarin and required ventilatory support

for more than 3 hours. although psychiatric and psy-

chological studies were not performed, he returned to

work after recovery with no apparent problems.

although few data on the duration of these neuro-

psychiatric effects in people exist, evidence suggests

that they are relatively short-lived (days or weeks).

Because of the nature of their work, people handling

321

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

nerve agents in manufacturing plants, at depots, or in

research and development facilities were relatively few

in number, tended to remain in the same job for a long

period, and comprised closely knit groups. most were

thoroughly familiar with the effects of nerve agents,

and most knew their coworkers very well. if a worker

did not seem “right,” his coworker or supervisor recog-

nized it.

122

a medical facility dedicated to the treatment

of nerve agent casualties, with a staff experienced in

this type of injury, was always available; workers were

encouraged to use it, and supervisors were instructed

to send employees who were not “normal” to the medi-

cal facility for evaluation.

one neuropsychiatric disorder that has been re-

ported to persist following the tokyo incident is PtSD.

Soon after the events in the tokyo subway in 1995,

one hospital reported that as many as 60% of patients

exhibited symptomatic PtSD up to 6 months after the

initial event.

124

Furthermore, 32% of the victims were

still feeling fear, 29% displayed insomnia, and 16% had

flashbacks of their experience. Still others displayed

depression (16%), irritability (16%), and persistent night-

mares (10%). a 5-year follow-up of 34 patients involved

in the tokyo incident

125,126

examined serum cholesterol,

uric acid, cholinesterase, and PtSD. From this group,

eight patients (23%) developed PtSD following the

event, and two were diagnosed with the disorder at the

time of the assessment. Comorbidity of PtSD with other

mental illness, including anxiety, agoraphobia, panic

disorders, and severe depression, was also observed

in the group that developed the disorder. although no

relationship of PtSD with cholesterol or uric acid was

apparent, the disorder had a surprising relationship to

serum cholinesterase. relative to patients who did not

develop PtSD, the patients who developed PtSD had

lower serum cholinesterase both within 3 days of the

attack and 5 years following the event. however, both

groups had significantly reduced cholinesterase im-

mediately following the attack versus the 5-year assess-

ment; thus, the relationship of reduced cholinesterase

and PtSD is not readily apparent.

other studies show the development of PtSD with

related neuropsychiatric symptoms in sarin-exposed

patients following the tokyo subway incident, but

not all showed persistent decreased cholinesterase. a

group of 18 male and female sarin patients were neu-

robehaviorally assessed 6 to 8 months following the

terrorist incident.

127

relative to matched controls, the

sarin patients presented with significantly depressed

cholinesterase activity at the time of hospital admis-

sion that had recovered by the time of the assessment.

at the follow-up assessment the sarin patients showed

significantly more psychiatric symptoms; fatigue; im-

paired Wechslar adult intelligence Scale digit symbol

performance (a measure of motor persistence, sustained

attention, response speed, and visuomotor coordina-

tion); and extended latencies for P300 auditory event-

related and P100 visual brain-evoked potentials related

to PtSD. the P300 evoked potential serves as a neural

marker of the ability to allocate and sustain attention,

and the P100 visual evoked potential is a marker for the

conduction time from the retina to the visual cortex.

in summary, studies intended to examine the neu-

ropsychiatric effects of organophosphate compounds

vary in their adequacy, and in some instances the re-

sults are contradictory. most studies agree, however,

that acute neuropsychiatric effects result from exposure

to both insecticides and nerve agents. these effects in-

clude inability to concentrate, memory problems, sleep

disturbances, anxiety, irritability, depression, problems

with information processing and psychomotor tasks,

and potentially PtSD. With pesticides, these effects

do not occur in the absence of the conventional signs

of poisoning. the duration of these effects is less well

studied. Some studies suggest that after exposure to

insecticides, problems might persist for a year or lon-

ger, but supporting data are not always provided. the

two reports of patients exposed to nerve agents and

personal observation suggest that these effects are of

shorter duration in this class of compounds.

electroencephalographic abnormalities

Insecticides and Other Organophosphates

electroencephalographic abnormalities were re-

ported in subjects given daily doses of diisopropyl

fluorophosphate for 2 to 7 days.

128

these abnormali-

ties consisted of faster frequencies, higher voltages,

and occasional bursts of slow waves of high voltage

at 3 to 6 hz. their severity was directly related to the

degree of initial cholinesterase inhibition. the changes

persisted for 3 to 4 weeks. Changes were noted in the

electroencephalograms (eeGs) of 50 industrial and

agricultural workers within 72 hours of accidental

exposure to insecticides (both organophosphate and

chlorinated hydrocarbons, on separate occasions),

although the relationship to work history, blood cho-

linesterase, and exposure type, duration, and severity

were not mentioned.

113

Nerve Agents

in a patient severely intoxicated with sarin, an eeG

(taken after the loss of consciousness but before the

onset of convulsions) showed marked slowing, with

bursts of high-voltage slow waves at 5 hz in the tem-

porofrontal leads. these abnormalities persisted for 6

322

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

days, after which no residual effects were noted.

121

Because of the reports on insecticides and concern

for employees working with or in the vicinity of nerve

agents, the uS government sponsored a series of stud-

ies

129–132

on the long-term effects of sarin exposure as

seen in eeG examinations. in the first study, monkeys

were dosed with sarin in one of two dose schedules: (1)

a single large dose that produced convulsions or (2) a

series of 10 weekly doses that caused no clinical effects.

in the second study, workers who had had at least one

documented exposure to sarin (signs, cholinesterase

depression) more than a year before the study were

evaluated. Control subjects were coworkers who had

no possibility of organophosphate exposure.

in the nonhuman primates, animals from both

dose schedules had increases in high-frequency beta

activity a year after exposure. Spectral analysis of the

eeGs of the humans showed increased beta activity in

the sarin-exposed population compared to the control

population. Visual reading of the records suggested

decreased amounts of alpha and increased amounts

of slow delta and theta activity in the exposed group.

increased amounts of rapid-eye movement sleep in the

exposed group were also found. individual records

could not be categorized. the investigators noted that

the relationship between these changes and alterations

in brain function was not known.

Toxicological studies on nerve agents

the effects of exposure to nerve agents on a chronic

or subchronic basis were reported in two studies on

animals. in a two-part, 90-day study

133,134

of subchronic

exposure, rats were given one of three doses of tabun

or soman 5 days per week by gavage. at the end of the

study, no abnormalities were found on gross or histo-

logical examination of tissue. in a study

135

of chronic

exposure to sarin, dogs received a Ct of 10 mg•min/m

of sarin over a 6-month period. Some animals were

dosed 5 days per week, and some were dosed 7 days

per week. no tissue abnormalities that could be attrib-

uted to the agent were noted on gross or microscopic

examination. Several of the male animals were bred

after the exposure and the pups were normal. in stud-

ies

136–139

in which tabun, sarin, and soman were given

to hens in single or multiple doses, in amounts maxi-

mally tolerated with the coadministration of atropine,

no evidence of polyneuropathy was noted clinically or

on microscopic examination.

Sarin and soman were deemed not mutagenic af-

ter they were studied using ames Salmonella, mouse

lymphoma, and Chinese hamster ovary cell systems.

140

tabun was found to be weakly mutagenic in the mouse

lymphoma cell test,

141

Chinese hamster ovary system,

142

and ames bacterial system.

143

CYaniDe

Cyanide is a lethal poison that can produce death

within 10 minutes. Cyanide compounds are used

extensively in industry and are present in the environ-

ment from many sources. humans can be exposed to

cyanide by ingestion, inhalation, or injection. however,

humans produce minute quantities of cyanide for

normal metabolic processes and also possess a limited

capability to detoxify ingested or inhaled cyanide. this

review of cyanide long-term effects differentiates the

long-term outcomes of a high-level acute exposure as

compared to a long-term exposure.

Physiology

Cyanide is a potent inhibitor of aerobic metabolism

through interruption of oxygen binding within mito-

chondrial cytochrome oxidase. tissues that depend

greatly on aerobic respiration, such as cardiac muscle

and nerve tissue, are most affected. Besides these ef-

fects and those on many other enzymes, cyanide is

also cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.

144

much of the CnS

toxicity of cyanide appears to be related to direct

toxicity on neurons with glutamic acid receptors.

Cyanide-induced striatal degeneration is mediated by

short-term, high-level exposures affecting N-methyl

-aspartate glutamate receptors.

145

neuronal degen-

eration based upon long-term exposure to cyanide

and its metabolites appears to be mediated through

-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionic

acid glutamate receptors.

146

Cyanide detoxification is extensively reviewed in

Chapter 11, Cyanide Poisoning, though it is important

to note that the primary biological means of detoxifica-

tion is the conversion of cyanide to thiocyanate through

a sulphurtransferase reaction followed by urinary

excretion.

Long-Term effects of an acute insult

outcomes of severe cyanide intoxications are

highly variable. many victims of moderate to severe

exposures who recover have no sequelae. For others,

the outcome often is a factor of timely diagnosis and

effective treatment.

a chemical company that produces large quantities

of cyanide for plastic manufacturing reported the re-

sults of eleven cyanide inhalations and two cutaneous

exposures. the cases varied in severity of symptoms

323

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

from headache and dizziness to death (although only

one person died, and this individual was in extremis

when found). all individuals in the report who had

vital signs at the time of discovery recovered. most of

the victims inhaled cyanide fumes for 30 to 90 seconds

and became unconscious with irregular respirations or

apnea. all these patients received supportive care of

bagged oxygen and amyl nitrite within 5 minutes. one

surviving patient required intravenous antidotes as

well as amyl nitrite, and the rest recovered with amyl

nitrite and artificial ventilation alone. nearly all the

patients recovered quickly, and some were even sent

back to work after a few hours of observation. no long-

term effects were reported. these cases demonstrate

the efficacy of simple field treatment if implemented

within a few minutes of exposure. it is noteworthy

that patients who remained conscious after inhalation

of cyanide recovered with supplemental oxygen and

no antidotes.

147

medical reports from severe ingestions include vari-

ous outcomes. many patients responded to treatment

and experienced complete recovery. other outcomes

were difficult to discern because the patients may have

developed global deficits from prolonged hypoxia. in

some severe casualties, a distinct pattern of neurologi-

cal impairment occurred. the basal ganglia appeared

to be particularly vulnerable to insult from cyanide,

with frequent involvement of the globus pallidus and

putamen.

148

Symptoms reported were parkinsonian,

with bradykinesia, shuffling gait, rigidity, and other

symptoms resembling a generalized dystonia. Cogni-

tive function sometimes remained intact.

149

in all cases

with long term sequelae, the patients experienced

significant delays of 30 minutes to hours before anti-

dote administration. (there are several excellent case

examples in Chapter 11, Cyanide Poisoning.)

Long-Term exposure

long-term exposure to cyanide contributes to a

number of conditions, although the different diseases

usually have several features in common. First, they are

primarily neurological diseases. Second, they involved

prolonged exposures to cyanide-containing food or

medication. third, those affected tend to subsist on a

monotonous diet with insufficient protein.

the most common dietary exposure is bitter cas-

sava root, Manihot esculenta Crantz, which is widely

consumed in the tropics and sub-Saharan africa, where

it ranks fourth in nutritional importance after rice,

wheat, and maize. Cassava is a staple during times of

famine because it can grow in poor soil and climate

conditions. Cassava’s cyanogenicity confers immunity

to pests. Procedures such as prolonged soaking, smash-

ing, or boiling are necessary to remove cyanogenic

compounds such as linamarin. Fresh cassava roots can

contain up to 1,500 mg hydrogen cyanide equivalent

per kilogram.

145

acute intoxications, even death, have

resulted from consumption of raw cassava, though

long-term exposures from incompletely processed

cassava are more likely.

konzo (“tied legs”) is a form of spastic paraparesis

found among poor rural populations of central and

east africa who primarily consume cassava. it affects

individuals of all ages. konzo is symmetrical, isolated,

and permanent. it is associated with sensations of

heaviness and weakness in legs that can cause the

inability to stand. it is often present in entire families

and varies in severity from a mild toe-scissor gait, to

requiring a walking stick, and to the point where walk-

ing is not possible. those at risk for konzo have ankle

clonus and lower extremity hyperreflexia.

150

konzo is

also associated with optic neuropathy.

151

individuals

with konzo are noted to have very high levels of uri-

nary thiocyanate. they are also protein deficient, with a

great deal of ingested amino acid sulphur diverting to

cyanide detoxification.

152

linamarin has been identified

as a specific toxic factor in this disease. it is also thought

that overwhelmed detoxification mechanisms and an

abrupt increase in metabolites over their chronic levels

lead to the sudden clinical presentation of konzo.

153

tropical ataxic neuropathy is a distinct cyanide-re-

lated disease with several other names that is classi-

cally associated with prisoners of war or middle-aged

and elderly persons in southwestern nigeria. it is a

polyneuropathy associated with bilateral optic atro-

phy, bilateral neurosensory deafness, and sensory gait

ataxia. this condition was widespread in nigeria until

an improved diet resulting from the 1970s oil boom

relegated this condition to rural areas.

154

tropical ataxic

neuropathy is a gradual onset, permanent condition

associated thiocyanate, cyanate, and a monotonous

cassava diet.

155

Smokers are known to have blood cyanide levels

significantly higher than the nonsmoking popula-

tion.

156

tobacco amblyopia is caused by chronic cya-

nide levels sometimes coupled with malnutrition and

alcoholism. Symptoms are loss of color perception

and decreased vision, which is often recoverable after

discontinuation of smoking or even administration of

cyanide antidotes. this once-common syndrome has

become rare in the united States.

157

another cyanide-related disorder is leber heredi-

tary optic neuropathy (lhon). lhon, first described

in 1871, is a maternally inherited disease of highly vari-

able penetrance that impairs oxidative phosphoryla-

tion. lhon is the model disease for mutations of the

mitrochondrial genome. the disease is heteroplasmic,

324

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

usually requiring more than 60% mutant genes for

symptoms to present. Patients with lhon are normal

until the sudden onset of blindness between the ages

of 15 and 35.

158

the stressor leading to cell death of the

highly aerobic optic nerve is the elevated blood cyanide

level associated with smoking and the associated blood

cyanide level.

159

Given the likely acute high-level exposure expected

in a military environment, it is reasonable to ask wheth-

er cyanide exposure can lead to blindness in some

individuals. this is theoretically possible in the small

fragment of the population with lhon mutations,

although no cases have been reported. there is only

one case of blindness from acute cyanide poisoning in

the literature, a temporary case caused by a sodium

nitroprusside overdose.

160

Cyanide can also be responsible for some cases of

goiter. elevated levels of thiocyanate as well as thyroid

abnormalities have been documented in individuals

on cyanogenic food diets and those in industries with

chronic exposures such as electroplating.

161

thio-

cyanate prevents uptake of iodine into the thyroid

gland.

162

Patients with chronic renal failure who smoke have

been known to develop a condition known as uremic

neuropathy, a result of the accumulation of thiocya-

nate, the major detoxification metabolite of cyanide.

in these patients, thiocyanate cannot be removed

from the body, even with dialysis. treatment involves

administration of hydroxocobalamin antidote, which

uses a different chemical pathway.

163

Several conditions were previously thought to be

associated with cyanide, including lathyrism, a neu-

rological disorder associated with grass pea ingestion.

Subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord,

attributed to cyanide in the past, is now well known

to be related to vitamin B12 metabolism.

in summary, the long-term effects of cyanide expo-

sure are highly variable. Severe exposures and cases

with delayed treatment may manifest in a Parkinso-

nian akinetic syndrome. long-term exposure to cya-

nide is likely in areas where cassava is the staple food

and represents a likely risk to future prisoners of war

in these areas. long-term cyanide exposure combined

with poor protein intake leads to neuromotor and

neurosensory disorders. Smoking represents a chronic

cyanide exposure that may lead to permanent blind-

ness in rare individuals. most importantly, the majority

of cyanide-exposed individuals who receive prompt

treatment may expect no long-term sequelae following

an acute cyanide exposure. this fact emphasizes the

importance of prompt casualty care.

ToXiC inHaLaTion inJUrY

the pulmonary agents are absorbed almost exclu-

sively by inhalation. they readily penetrate to the

level of the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli, that

is, to the peripheral compartment of the respiratory

tree. however, most of these agents are essentially

consumed by reactions occurring at the alveolar-capil-

lary membrane, or more proximally in the respiratory

tract, and are not systemically distributed to a clinically

significant extent.

inhalation of selected organohalides, oxides of

nitrogen, and other compounds can result in varying

degrees of pulmonary edema, usually after a symptom-

free period that varies in duration with the amount

inhaled. Chemically induced acute lung injury by these

agents involves a permeability defect in the blood–air

barrier (the alveolar-capillary membrane); however,

the precise mechanisms of toxicity remain an enigma.

the united States produces over a billion pounds of

phosgene per year for industrial uses; however, it is

not stockpiled for military use.

Perfluoroisobutylene (PFiB) is a toxic pyrolysis

product of tetrafluoroethylene polymers encountered

in military materiel (eg, teflon [DuPont, Wilmington,

Del] found in the interior of many military vehicles).

the oxides of nitrogen are components of blast weap-

ons or may be toxic decomposition products. Smokes

(eg, hC) contain toxic compounds that cause the same

effects as phosgene.

164

the long-term health effects of

phosgene exposure also apply to casualties from agents

such as PFiB and oxides of nitrogen.

165

Phosgene

Phosgene produces pulmonary edema following a

clinical latent period of variable length that depends

primarily on the intensity of exposure (ie, the Ct), but

also partly on the physical activity of the exposed indi-

vidual. after the latent period, the patient experiences

worsening respiratory distress that at first is unaccom-

panied by objectively verifiable signs of pulmonary

damage, but may progress relentlessly to pulmonary

edema and death.

During the time preceding the appearance of short-

ness of breath, individuals exposed to particularly high

concentrations of organohalides may report symp-

toms associated with mucous membrane irritation.

exposure to large quantities of phosgene may irritate

moist mucous membranes, presumably because of the

generation of hydrochloric acid from the hydrolysis of

phosgene. transient burning sensation in the eyes with

325

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

lacrimation and chemical conjunctivitis may coexist

with mild, early onset cough and a substernal ache

with a sensation of pressure. irritation of the larynx

by very large concentrations of the agent may lead to

sudden laryngeal spasm and death.

a clinical latent period during which the patient

is asymptomatic may follow low Ct exposure or

the transient irritation associated with substantial

phosgene exposure. this asymptomatic period may

persist up to 24 hours after organohalide inhalation.

the duration of the latent period is shorter following

a high dose and is shortened by physical exertion

following exposure.

the most prominent symptom following the clini-

cal latent period is dyspnea, perceived as shortness

of breath, with or without chest tightness. these

sensations reflect hypoxemia, increased ventilatory

drive, and decreased lung compliance, all of which

result from the accumulation of fluid in the pulmo-

nary interstitial and peripheral airways. Fine crackles

can be heard at the lung bases, but these may not be

clearly audible unless auscultation is conducted after

a forced expiration. later, auscultation reveals coarse

crackles and rales in all lung fields, and increasing

quantities of thin, watery secretions are noted. the

buildup of fluid in the lungs has two clinically per-

tinent effects. First, developing pulmonary edema

interferes with oxygen delivery to alveolar capillar-

ies and may lead to hypoxemia, and if a sufficient

percentage of hemoglobin is unoxygenated, cyanosis

will become apparent. Second, the sequestration of

plasma-derived fluid (up to 1 l per hour) in the lungs

may lead to hypovolemia and hypotension, interfer-

ing with oxygen delivery to the brain, kidneys, and

other crucial organs. Death results from respiratory

failure, hypoxemia, hypovolemia, or a combination

of these factors. hypoxia and hypotension may

progress particularly rapidly, which suggests a poor

prognosis. the development of symptoms and signs

of pulmonary edema within 4 hours of exposure is

an especially accurate indicator of a poor prognosis;

in the absence of immediately available intensive

medical support, such patients are at high risk of

death. Complications include infection of damaged

lungs and delayed deaths following such respira-

tory infections.

164

Several studies sponsored by the

Veterans administration using animals and humans

reported that after phosgene exposure pulmonary

edema appeared very early.

166

in July 1920, Winternitz’s

167

report on experimental

work with dogs revealed acute changes in the cardiore-

spiratory system following exposure to lethal concen-

trations of phosgene. the upper portion of the respira-

tory tract was not affected, but the alveoli of the lungs

and the finer bronchi gave evidence of congestion,

inflammation, and edema. the inflammatory reaction

following phosgene exposure resulted in congestion

of the bronchial and spread into the surrounding air

cells, indicative of an early bronchopneumonia with

a marked edema of the lungs. Dilatation, reflex bron-

chiolar spasm, and plugging of the bronchiols with

exudates led to patches of atelectasis and emphysema.

a substantial amount of fibrin on alveolar walls, cross-

ing and obstructing the capillaries, led to resistance in

the pulmonary circulation, with a consequent dilata-

tion of the right heart. in the dogs, damage occurred

principally in the respiratory tract, and lesions varied

according to the length of survival after the exposure.

initial pulmonary edema associated with congestion

reached a maximum intensity toward the end of the

first 24 hours and gradually disappeared in animals

surviving 10 days or longer. With the edema, there was

an associated inflammatory exudation of fibrin and

leucocytes. this cellular exudate was found especially

in the finer bronchioles and extended into the alveo-

lar tissue. it was suggestive of a lobular pneumonia.

the pneumonia was frequently complicated by nec-

rotization of the walls of the bronchioles, which also

involved the adjacent alveoli and resulted in abscess

formation. in some cases, although the inflammatory

process was succesesfully overcome, an obliterative

bronchiolitis resulted.

in the exposed dogs, the pathology was localized to

the trachea and bronchi. the epithelium of the trachea

and larger bronchi was damaged, while the smaller

bronchi and bronchioles were the most seriously af-

fected. in addition to changes in the mucosa, there

were contractions, distortions of the bronchioles, and

more or less obliteration of the lumina. all this led to

mechanical disturbance in the air sacs, with resting

atelectasis and emphysema.

the Veterans administration conducted a study

reviewing the histories of 10 veterans who had been

gassed with phosgene and showed evidence of physi-

cal effects a number of years later.

166

this historical

study revealed that chronic bronchitis was the most fre-

quent long-term effect noted. emphysema was noted

in three of the veterans, pulmonary fibrosis was noted

in two, chronic-active pulmonary tuberculosis was

found in one case, and bronchial asthma was found in

another. this study also revealed that the symptoms of

the pulmonary disabilities were observed immediately

after the phosgene gas exposure and continued to be

the causative factor the long-term pulmonary effects

at the time of the study.

166

according to the Veterans administration, the fol-

lowing pathological changes were noted in soldiers

who died following phosgene gas exposure

166

326

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

•

Pulmonary edema, usually very marked,

occurred. the pleural cavities generally con-

tained an excess of fluid.

•

the lungs, upon removal from the thorax,

were voluminous, heavy, and bluish-red in

color; occasionally, petechial hemorrhages

and alternating patches of emphysema and

collapsed lung tissue were noted.

•

Section of lungs showed an exudation of

frothy fluid from the cut surface.

•

irregular, alternating areas of edema and acute

emphysema were noted.

•

the trachea, bronchi, and bronchiole were

generally filled with thin, yellowish, serosan-

guineous fluid.

•

there was little or no inflammatory change in

the larynx, trachea, and bronchi.

•

the veins were engorged.

•

the heart, especially on the right side, was

dilated.

•

Petechial hemorrhages were often found be-

neath the endocardium.

•

the pericardial fluid increased in amount.

•

the abdominal viscera showed the presence

of generalized venous engorgement and

congestion.

•

the meninges of the brain were congested.

methyl isocyanate

in December 1984, in Bhopal, india, a massive leak

of methyl isocyanate resulted from operational and

equipment malfunctions in a pesticide plant. many

thousands of residents of the city, most in proximity

to the plant, suffered sublethal and lethal respiratory

injuries, the expected consequences of high-level ex-

posure to this type of potent irritant chemical vapor.

animal toxicological information was limited prior

to the accident, but has since confirmed that the lung

is the major target of these lethal injuries, invariably

with pulmonary edema. early concerns about acute

cyanide intoxication were not supported by subse-

quent scientific inquiry. Superficial corneal erosions

did not result in permanent eye injury. the primary

unresolved (and perhaps irresolvable) medical is-

sue is the incidence and determinants of long-term

respiratory injury in the survivors. limited available

evidence suggests that chronic damage, when pres-

ent, is or resembles fibrosing bronchiolitis obliterans,

the expected consequence when permanent injury

results from acute, high-level irritant gas exposure.

Definition of the follow-up population is uncertain,

and exposure information is lacking. Dose-response

relationships are not likely to emerge from follow-up

studies.

168

Perfluoroisobutylene

PFiB primarily affects the peripheral compartment of

the pulmonary system. although animal studies occa-

sionally report disseminated intravascular coagulation

and other organ involvement, these effects only occur

with substantial pulmonary injury to the peripheral

compartment of the pulmonary system, suggesting that

systemic hypoxia is a major factor.

169

no human studies

have reported organ involvement other than the respira-

tory system. Pathological data on acute human exposure

to PFiB are not available; however, pathological data on

animals show both histological and ultramicroscopic

changes occurring within 5 minutes of exposure.

170

interstitial edema with alveolar fibrin deposition

progresses rapidly over 24 hours, and then gradually

subsides until the patient is fully recovered. at 72 hours,

a type ii pneumocyte hyperplasia is seen (interpreted

as consistent with known reparative processes). Some

long-term pathological changes in animals have been

noted but most animal studies do not identify such

long-term effects.

171

human long-term pathological data

are available for only one reported case: a 50-year-old

woman who experienced approximately 40 episodes of

polymer fume fever—typically occurring from smoking

contaminated cigarettes. eighteen months after her last

episode, progressive exercise dyspnea was noted. a car-

diopulmonary physical examination, chest radiograph,

and arterial blood gas were all normal. Pulmonary

function testing supported a provisional diagnosis of

alveolar capillary block syndrome (decreased diffu-

sion capacity of carbon monoxide, increased exercise

alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient, and minimal airway

disease). Death occurred from an unrelated cause. the

autopsy provided histological evidence of moderate

interstitial fibrosis with minimal chronic inflammatory

cell infiltrate.

172

only two human deaths from pyrolysis

products of polymerized organofluorides have been

reported.

173,174

oxides of nitrogen

inhalation of nitric oxide causes the formation of

methemoglobin. inhalation of nitrogen dioxide results

in the formation of nitrite, which leads to a fall in blood

pressure, production of methemoglobin, and cellular

hypoxia, which causes rapid onset pulmonary edema.

the clinical response to oxides of nitrogen exposure

is essentially triphasic. in phase 1, symptoms appear

more or less quickly, depending on the intensity of

exposure. With a low dose, initial eye irritation, throat

tightness, chest tightness, cough, and mild nausea may

appear. once the casualty is removed from the source

of exposure, these symptoms disappear spontaneously

over the next 24 hours. however, at 24 to 36 hours

327

Long-Term Health Effects of Chemical Threat Agents

postexposure, a particularly severe respiratory symp-

tom complex may appear suddenly; exertion seems

to be a prominent precipitating factor. there may be

severe cough, dyspnea, and rapid onset of pulmonary

edema. if the patient survives this stage, spontaneous

remission occurs within 48 to 72 hours postexposure.

more intense exposures produce a relatively rapid on-

set of acute bronchiolitis with severe cough, dyspnea,

and weakness, without the above-mentioned latent

period. again, spontaneous remission occurs at ap-

proximately 3 to 4 days postexposure.

175

Phase 2 is a relatively asymptomatic period lasting

approximately 2 to 5 weeks. a mild residual cough

with malaise and perhaps minimal shortness of breath

may occur, as well as a sense of weakness that may

progress. the chest radiograph, however, typically is

clear. in phase 3, symptoms may recur 3 to 6 weeks

after the initial exposure. Severe cough, fever, chills,

dyspnea, and cyanosis may develop. Crackles are

identified on physical examination of the lung. the

polymorphonuclear white blood cell count is elevated,

and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide may be el-

evated as well.

176

the chest radiograph demonstrates

diffuse, scattered, fluffy nodules of various sizes,

which may become confluent progressively, with a

butterfly pulmonary edema pattern and a prominent

acinar component. at this point, pathological study

demonstrates classic bronchiolitis fibrosis obliterans,

which may clear spontaneously or may progress to

severe, occasionally lethal respiratory failure. the

fluffy nodular changes noted in the chest radiograph

typically show no clinical improvement. Pulmonary

function testing may show long-term persistence of

airways obstruction.

177–179

Zinc oxide

hexachloroethane (hC) smoke, a mixture of equal

amounts of hC and zinc oxide with additional ingre-

dients, is a toxic military smoke and obscurant. hC’s

toxicity is attributed to the irritating effects of zinc

chloride. most likely, carbon monoxide, phosgene,

hexachloroethane, and other products contribute to

the observed respiratory effects. the damage to the

pulmonary system is confined largely to the upper

respiratory tract, where zinc chloride acts much like

a corrosive irritant. Studies reveal that hC exposure

can produce a gradual decrease in total lung capac-

ity, vital capacity, and diffusion capacity of carbon

monoxide. hC is associated with the presence of

pulmonary edema, increased airway resistance, and

decreased compliance. When hC smoke exposure is

discontinued, the pulmonary changes are reversible in

all but 10% to 20% of those effected, who could develop

pulmonary fibrotic changes.

180

in a study by Conner et al

181

performed with

guinea pigs, exposure to ultrafine hC particles (0.05

µm) in increasing degrees was associated with a

dose-response elevation in protein, neutrophils, and

angiotensin-converting enzyme found in lavage fluid.

a direct relationship also was observed with alkaline

phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and lactate dehydro-

genase in lavage fluid. Centriacinar inflammation was

seen histologically, indicating evidence of pulmonary

damage. a study by marrs et al

182

involving mice, rats,

and guinea pigs demonstrated a positive association

of alveologenic carcinoma in a dose-response trend

to hC smoke, as well as a variety of inflammatory

changes. the article states that hexachloroethane and

zinc, as well as carbon tetrachloride (which may be

present in hC smoke), may be animal carcinogens in

certain circumstances. this raises the suspicion of hC

as a potential carcinogen.

metal fume fever is a well-documented acute dis-

ease induced by intense inhalation of metal oxides,

especially zinc oxide. the exact pathology is not un-

derstood, but the clinical syndrome is well described

and has been studied at length. a study by kuschner

et al

183

on human volunteers showed that pulmonary

cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor, interleukin

6, and interleukin 8 may play important initial roles

in mediating metal fume fever. Prolonged exposures

or exposures to very high doses of hC may result

in sudden early collapse and death, possible as a

result of laryngeal edema or glottal spasm. if severe

exposure does not kill the individual immediately,

hemorrhagic ulceration of the upper airway may oc-

cur, with paroxysmal cough and bloody secretions.

Death may occur within hours secondary to an acute

tracheobronchitis.

most individuals with hC inhalation injuries

progress to complete recovery. of exposed individu-

als, 10% to 20% develop fibrotic pulmonary changes.

Distinguishing between those who will recover and

those who will not is difficult, because both groups

make an early clinical recovery.

sUmmarY

a wide variety of chemical agents and industrial

products are associated with long-term health con-

sequences after an acute insult. others are known

to be harmful with prolonged low-level exposure.

the linkage between these associations is sometimes

tenuous given the limitations of retrospective studies

and case reports up to 90 years old. research labo-

ratory efforts and future case reports will continue

328

Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare

to strengthen the understanding of these effects. in

the meantime, the existing knowledge base provides

clinicians sufficient reason to monitor for these pos-

sible outcomes and apply proactive surveillance

to individuals working with these chemicals on a

daily basis.

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