plik

Management and Managers

Management

–

The process of getting things done efficiently and effectively through and with people.

Organizational performance

–

Measures how efficiently and effectively managers use resources to achieve goals and
satisfy customers.

Efficiency

–

Measure of how well or how productively resources are used.

Effectiveness

–

Measure of appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and of the degree to
which organization achieves the goals.

Organization

–

A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific goals.

–

A collectivity of people engaged in a systematic effort to produce a good or an activity.

Characteristics of an organization

–

purpose

–

people

–

structure

Managerial functions

–

planning (choose goals)

–

organizing (working together)

–

leading (coordinate)

–

controlling (monitor & measure)

Management compromises planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of resources to
achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently

Planning

–

Identifying and selecting appropriate goals ( which goals should be persued? How should
the goal be achieved? How should the resources be allocated?)

Organizing

–

Structuring working relationships in a way that allow organizational members to work
together to achieve organizational goals.

Leading

–

motivating; articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organization members to
understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals.

–

Leadership involves a manager using power, influence, vision, persuasion, and
communication skills.

–

The outcome of leading function is high level of motivation and commitment from
employees to organization.

Controlling

–

Evaluating of how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain
or improve performance.

–

Managers monitor individuals, departments, and the organization to determine whether
organization desired performance has been reached

–

the outcome of controlling function is accurate measurement of performance and regulation
of efficiency and effectiveness

Managers

–

are individuals who are responsible for completing tasks, require the supervision of other
members or organizational resources

Resources

–

human

–

material

–

financial

–

technological/informational

–

natural

Management levels

–

Top managers

–

Middle managers

–

First line managers

Managerial roles

–

Interpersonal [Figurehead role, Leader role, Liaison role]

–

Informational []Monitor role, Disseminator role, Spokesman role]

–

Decisional [Entrepreneur role, Disturbance handler role, Resource allocator role, Negotiator]

Managerial skills

–

Conceptual skills

–

Human skills

–

Technical skills

These skills are enhanced through formal training, reading, and practice.

Environment

Organizational environment

–

those forces outside its boundaries, that can impact it

–

all elements residing outside of an organization's boundary that have the potential to affect
some or all of the activities occurring in the organization.

Opportunities

–

openings for managers to enhance revenues and or open markets

Threats

–

issues that can harm an organization

Environmental dimensions

–

munificence

–

complexity

–

concentration

–

dynamism

–

turbulence

–

consensus

Task environment

–

Suppliers & distributors – manager buy products from global suppliers or make items
abroad and supply themselves. Each country or a brand often has a unique system of
distribution

–

Customers & competitors – formerly district national markets are merging into a huge
global market. Managers often must customize products to fit the culture. Global
competitors present new threats.

General environment

–

Economical forces – effect the national economy and the organization;

–

Technological forces – skills and equipment used in design,production,distribution;

–

Sociocultural forces – result from changes in the social or national culture of society;

–

Demographic forces – result from changes in the nature, composition, diversity of a
population;

–

Political – Legal forces – results from changes in the political arena;

–

Global – results from changes in international relationships among other countries.

Stakeholders

–

Are the interest groups which have justifiable reasons for expecting and often for demanding
that the firm satisfy their claims an a responsible manner;

–

Are individuals or groups who can affect or are affected by the company’s activities.

Steps in analyzing stakeholders

–

Identification of the stakeholders;

–

Understanding the stakeholders’ specific claims;

–

Reconciliation of these claims and assignment of priorities to them;

–

Coordination of the claims with other elements of the company mission.

Environmental change

–

Refers to the degree to which elements in the task and general environment change over
time;

Types of environmental uncertainty

–

Regarding information availability accuracy and clarity;

–

Regarding cause-effect relations;

–

Regarding outcome preferences;

–

Deriving from a time span of a definitive feedback;

–

Deriving from an inability to assign probabilities to events.

Reducing environmental impact

–

Managers can counter environmental threats by reducing the no of forces;

–

All levels of managers should work to minimalize the potential impact of environmental
forces;

–

Managers can create new organizational structures to deal with the change

Planning

–

Defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy and developing a
hierarchy of plans to achieve goals;

–

Identifying and selecting appropriate goals and courses of action;

–

Is the process used by managers to identify and select goals and courses for action for the
organization.

Reasons for planning

–

Sets standards to facilitate control;

–

Provides a direction;

–

Minimizes waste and redundancy;

–

Reduces the impact of a change

Good planning provides

–

participation;

–

sense of direction and purpose;

–

coordination;

–

control.

Planning principles

–

Planning needs to be based on real timely information;

–

Be action-based;

–

Identify risks and challenges;

–

Be ethical;

–

Planning efforts need to be measured and evaluated.

3 rules of stating objectives:

–

Spell out in quantifiable or measurable terms;

–

Specify deadline for an achievement;

–

Be challenging but achievable.

Characteristics of objectives(SMART)

–

Specific (simple);

–

Measurable;

–

Attainable (achievable);

–

Realistic;

–

Timely (tangible)

Stages of planning process

–

Determining the organization’s mission and goals (define business);

–

Strategy formulation (analyze current situation & develop strategies);

–

Strategy implementation (allocate resources & responsibilities to achieve strategies).

Vision

–

The idea, concept of our organization (it’s not a goals, doesn’t have to fulfill any criteria)

Mission

–

A broad declaration of an organization’s purpose that identifies the organization’s
products and customers and distinguishes the organization from its competitors;

–

A main goal in the organization.

Mission should answer

–

What is the main goal of the organization?

–

What is the domain (business) of our organization?

–

Whose and which need does the organization fulfill?

Mission features

–

general;

–

real;

–

important for customers;

–

in accordance with general trends in society;

–

translating into a financial outcome.

Goals

–

Strategic (general, long-term, top management);

–

Tactic (the specification of strategic goals, middle-term, middle management);

–

Operational (the specification of tactic goals, short-term, low management)

Barriers to planning

–

Environment;

–

Reluctance to establish goals:

–

unwillingness to give up alternative goals;

–

fear of failure;

–

a lack of organizational knowledge;

–

a lack of confidence.

–

Inadequate reward system;

–

Resistance to changes;

–

Time and an expense.

Organizing

Organization as a system

–

System that is composed of interrelated subsystems;

–

The survival or failure of the system is dependent on the interrelations of subsystems and
their contribution to the overall purpose of the system.

Primary activities

–

they directly concerns creating and delivering a product

–

inbound logistics;

–

operations;

–

outbound logistics;

–

marketing & sales;

–

service.

Support activities

–

they are not directly involved in production;may increase effectiveness and efficiency

–

procurement;

–

human resource;

–

management technology development;

–

infrastructure

Organizing

–

the process by managers to establish working relationships among employees to achieve
goals

Organizational bonds

–

hierarchic;

–

functional;

–

technical;

–

informational.

Job design

–

Grouping tasks into specific jobs;

–

It helps determine:

–

What tasks are done;

–

How the tasks are done;

–

How many tasks are done;

–

In what order the tasks are done

Good job design

–

Allows for an employee input;

–

Gives employees a sense of accomplishment;

–

Includes training so employees know what tasks to do and how to do them properly;

–

Provides good work/rest schedules.

Key elements of organization structure

–

Work specialization;

–

The chain of command;

–

Span of control;

–

Authority

–

Responsibility

–

Centralization

–

Decentralization

–

Departmentalization

Work specialization

–

a job is broken down into a number of steps;

–

each step is completed by a separate individual;

–

makes the efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers have.

The chain of command

–

is the continuous line of authority that extends from the highest level in an organization to
the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom.

Span of control

–

a number of employees that a manager can manage efficiently;

–

increased over the last years;

–

contingency variables impact the number.

Authority

–

rights inherent in managerial position to give orders and expect them to be followed;

–

related to one’s position-not the characteristics of person.

Responsibility

–

obligation to perform;

–

goes hand-in-hand with authority.

Centralization

–

a function of how much decision making authority is pushed down into lower levels

Decentralization

–

pushing down decision making authority to the lowest levels.

Departmentalization

five ways to departmentalize

–

function;

–

product;

–

customer;

–

geography;

–

process.

Functional structure

–

Consist of departments such as marketing,production,finance etc

pros

–

workers can learn from other doing similar tasks;

–

easy for managers to monitor valuate workers.

cons

–

hard for one department to communicate with other;

–

managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.

Product structure

–

Consists of departments such as product A,product B etc

pros

–

Increases accountability for product performance;

–

Activities related to a specific product are under the direction of a single manager .

cons

–

Hard for one department to communicate with others;

–

Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company

Region structure/Geographic structure

–

Consists of departments such as Asia, Europe, and etc.

pros

–

Employees are close to customers;

–

A regional manager has flexibility needed to choose the products that best meets regional
customers

cons

–

Hard for one department to communicate with others;

–

Managers can become preoccupied with their department and forget the company.

Market structure

–

Consists of departments based on customers’ problems and needs

pros

–

See Functional

cons

–

See Functional

Process structure

–

Units are organized around common skills needed to complete a particular process (testing,
payment)

pros

–

Offers are basics for homogeneous categorization of activities

cons

–

See Functional

Organization design

Flat structure

–

Have few levels of authority but a wide span of control(wide span of control,not many levels
of managers);

Tall structure

–

Have many levels of authority relative to the organization’s size(narrow span of
control,many levels of managers)

Simple structure

–

Owner/manager → employee, employee, employee;

Functional structure

–

Plant manager → manager engineering; m. accounting; m. information systems; m. human
resources; m. purchasing;

Divisional structure

–

Divisional divided by region of product;

Mechanistic structure

–

Tall (many departments and levels of management), extensive departmentalization,high
formalization, a limited information network;

Organic structure

–

Flat (few departments, few levels of management), uses cross-hierarchical and cross-
functional teams, low formalization, participative decision making;

Matrix structures

–

Managers group people by function/product/market etc. and product/functions/market etc.
teams simultaneously;

–

results in a complex network of reporting relationships;

–

very flexible and can respond rapidly to changes;

–

each employee has two bosses what can cause problems,

Hybrid structure

–

The ability to break a large organization into many smaller ones;

–

It makes it much more easier to manage

Organizational structures types

–

span of control and number of levels of authority (flat and tall structures);

–

dominant organizational bonds (line structures, functional structures, ordnance structures,
technical structures)

Motivation

–

Human force to act

Motivating

–

The process of motivating people in order to accomplish goals

Motive

–

An eternal factor;connected with motivation.

Incentive

–

An external factor, material/non-material, prizes/punishment, (connected with motivating).

Motivation process

–

unsatisfied need>tension>drivers(motivators)>search behaviour>satisfied need>reduction of
tension

Kinds of motivation

–

intrinsic - behaviour is performed for its own sake;

–

extrinsic - baheviour is performed to acquire rewards

Theories of motivation

–

Content Theories - What motivates, factors determining motivation;

–

Process Theories – The process of motivating, how can we motivate?

–

Reinforcement Theories

Content Theories

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

–

(psychological,safety,social,esteem,self realization)

–

We are wanting animals

–

Our needs are arranged in hierarchy of importance

Herzberg’s two factors theory

–

focuses on outcomes that can lead to high motivation,job satisfaction and those that can
prevent dissatisfaction

–

motivation needs – (satisfiers) – lead to strong motivation and satisfaction when they are
present but do not cause much dissatisfaction when they are absent; related to nature of
work and how challenging it is;

–

hygiene needs – (dissatifiers) – cause much dissatisfaction then they are not present but do
not provide strong motivation when they are absent. They must be present at work before
motivators can be used to stimulate a person, related to the psychical & psychological
context of work.

Mcclelland’s theory

–

three needs theory – achievement, power, affiliation;

–

achievement is more important than reward (material or financial);

–

financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success not an end in itself;

–

feedback is essential,

–

achievement – motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing thing
better,

–

achievement – motivated people will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally
satisfy their needs,

Alderfer’s ERG

–

after lower level needs satisfied person seeks higher needs;

–

when unable to satisfy higher needs lower needs motivation is raised (regression)

Process Theories

Expectancy theory Vroom

–

Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel that:

–

high levels of effort lead to high performance,

–

high performance will lead to attainment of desired outcomes.

–

Vroom’s theory consists of three areas:

–

expectancy – perception that effort (input) will result in a level of performance,

–

instrumentality – performance leads to outcomes,

–

valance – how desirable each outcome is to a person,

Equity theory Adams

–

Considers workers’ perception of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs,

–

Notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives.

Reinforcement theories

Learning theory skinner

–

Focuses on linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation;

–

Learning – permanent change in person’s knowledge or behaviour resulting from practice or
experience;

–

Operant conditioning – people learn to do thing leading to desired outcomes and avoid doing
things with adverse outcomes;

–

positive reinforcement – people get desired outcomes when they perform needed work
bahaviour;

–

negative reinforcement – a manager eliminates undesired outcomes once the desired
behaviour occurs.

Suggestions for motivating employees

–

recognize individuals;

–

match people to jobs;

–

use goals;

–

make goals attainable;

–

individualize rewards;

–

link rewards to performance;

–

check the system for equity;

–

don’t ignore money

Pay and motivation

–

expectancy theories - pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) must be high so that
motivating will be high;

–

need theories – pay is used to satisfy many needs;

–

equity theories – pay is given in relation to inputs;

–

learning theories – outcomes (pay) are distributed upon performance of functional
behaviours

Controlling

3 types of control

–

feedforward – anticipate problems before they occur;

–

concurrent – manage problems as they occur;

–

feedback – manage problems after they have arisen;

Steps in organizational control

1. establish the standards of performance goals targets against which performance is to be

evaluated;

2. measure actual performance;
3. compare actual performance against chosen standards of performance;
4. evaluate the result and initiate corrective actions if the standard is not being achieved.

Bureaucratic control

–

control of bahaviour by means of a comprehensive system of rules.

Clan control

–

control exerted on individuals and groups in an organization by shared values, norms,
standards of behaviour and expectations.

Leadership

Leadership:

The process where a person exerts (wywierać) influence over others and inspires, motivates, and
directs their activity to achieve goals.

Leader:

The person exerting the influence

Personal Leadership style:

the ways leaders choose to influence others.

Managers

Leaders

Appointed and have formal
authority

May have managerial authority
and influence others

Charismatic Leadership

–

ability to articulate a vision

–

appearance as change agent

–

environmental sensitivity

–

extraordinary behaviour

–

self confidence

–

strong conviction (przekonanie)

–

vision

Visionary Leadership

(three Ex rule)
Express the vision ------> Extend the vision ------> Explain the vision

<--------------

<------------------

Power – additional capacity to influence decisions

Enable managers to be a leaders and influence subordinates to achieve goals.

–

Coercive (represyjna)

–

Leadership

–

Reward

–

Referent

–

Expert

Sources of power

–

Legitimate power – managers authority resulting from their management, position in the
company;

–

Reward power – based on the manager's ability to give or withhold rewards;

–

Coercive power – based on ability to punish others;

–

Expert power – based on a special skills of leader;

–

Referent power – result from personal characteristics of leader who earn worker's respect,
loyalty and admiration.

Leadership models

1)Trait model – Sought (poszukiwany) to identify personal characteristics responsible for
all effective leadership;
2)Personal – Behavioural Model – personal qualities (przymioty) behavioural (związane z
zachowaniem) patterns;

–

Michigan Studies

–

Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

–

The Blake Gordon Grid

–

Theory X and Y

–

Reddin 3D model
3)Situational model – identification of key situational factors and their importance;

–

Contingency theory;

–

Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton;

–

Tridimensional theory;

–

House path goal;
4)Transactional model – Leading in therms of transaction – efforts and benefits (wysiłek i
marchewka);
5)Transformational model – Leader as a change agent – more individual, focuses on
inspiration and motivation. Followers are expected to think by themselves, not only what
they are told;

*changes and order by Milena : )

1)Trait model

Drive

<------->

Desire to lead

Honesty and integrity
(prawość)

<------->

Self confidence

Intelligence

<------->

Job relevant knowledge

2)Personal – Behavioral model

–

Consideration – leaders show care towards workers (employee-centered)

–

Initiating structure – managers take steps to make sure work is done. (Done by assigning
work, setting goals, etc. ; Job-oriented)

- Identifiable leadership behaviour

–

Autocratic – centralized authority, limits participation.

–

Democratic – full participation, discussion.

–

Laissez-Faire – gives team members full freedom.

Theories

–

Michigan Studies

–

Robert Tannenbaun and Warren Schmidt Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

–

The Blake Gordon Grid

–

Theory X and Y

–

Reddin 3D model

Michigan Studies

Job centered leadership

Employee centered leadership

–

structure a job

–

focus on human aspects

–

closely supervision

–

building effective work group

–

determines standards

–

giving subordinates freedom.

Tannenbaum and W. Schmidt - Continuum of Leadership Behaviour.

The Blake Mouton Grid

–

Impoverished – a minimum effort to accomplish the work.

–

Produce or perish – task completion but little regard for the development and morale of
subordinates.

–

Middle of the road – adequate task completion and satisfactory morale are the goals

–

County Club – focuses on being supportive and considerate of employes; task completion is
not a primary concern.

–

Team Leader – facilitates production and morale by coordinating and integrating work-
related activities

3)Situational Model

–

The situational approach (metoda) requires leaders to demonstrate a strong degree of
flexibility

Managers style depends on a situation

–

Contingency theory

–

Leader – style theory

–

Tridimentional Leader

–

Path – Goal theory

Contingency (ewentualność) theory

–

'Effective leadership is contingent on both the characteristics of the leader and the situation.'
Characteristics:

–

Leader – member relations concerned with developing good relation with workers

–

Task structure – worker perform so the job gets done

–

Position power

–

relationship – oriented managers are the most effective in IV, V, VI, VII

–

task – centered managers are the most effective in I, II, III, VIII

Leader style. Theory Vroom Yeton

–

The importance of the quality of the decision

–

The extent to which the leader possesses sufficient information/expertise to make high –
quality decision

–

The extend to which the problem is structured.

–

The extend to which acceptance of commitment of the part of subordinates is critical to the
effective implementation of the decision

–

The probability that the leader's autocratic decisions will receive acceptance by subordinates

–

The extend to which the subordinates are motivated to obtain the organizational goals

–

The extend to which subordinates are likely to be in conflict over preferred solution

Tridimentional Leader Effectiveness Theory

–

'Leaders match their style to the competence and commitment if subordinates'

–

Comprised of: directive dimension, supportive dimension.

-The four leadership styles

–

Supporting (high supportive, low directive)

–

Delegating (low supportive, low directive)

–

Directing (low supportive, high directive)

–

Coaching (high supportive high directive)

-Directive behaviour

Helps group members in goal achievement via one-way communication throught:

–

giving directions

–

establishing goals and how to achieve them

–

methods of evaluation & time lines

–

defining roles

-Supportive behaviour

Assist group members via two-way communication in felling comfortable with themselves, workers
and situations

House’s Path-Goal Model

–

Workers are trying to achieve clearly identified outcomes.

–

Reward workers for high performance and attainment.

–

Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.

-Motivating with path – goal

–

Directive behaviour: set goals, assign tasks, show how to do things

–

Supportive behaviour: look out for the workers best interest

–

Participate behaviour: give subordinates a say in matters that affects them

–

Achievement-oriented behavior: setting very challenging goals, believing in workers’
abilities.

-Steps to path – goal

–

Determine the outcomes your subordinates are trying to obtain

–

Reward subordinates for high-performance and goal attainment with the desired outcomes.

–

Clarify the paths to goal attainment for workers, remove obstacles to performance, and
express confidence in worker’s ability.

4; 5)Transformational leadership vs. Transactional leadership

Transformational leadership

- Make subordinates aware of how important their jobs are by providing feedback to the

worker

- Make subordinates aware of their own need for personal growth and development

- Motivate workers to work for the good of the organization, not just themselves

Transformational leaders

- Are charismatic and have a vision of how good things can be

- Openly share information with workers
- Are engaged in development of workers

Transactional leader:

Transformational leader

Recognizes what it is that we
want to get from work and
tries to ensure that we get it if
our performance merits it

Raises our level of awareness our
level of consciousness about the
significance and value of
designated outcomes, and ways of
reaching them

Exchanges rewards and
promises for our effort

Gets is transcend our own self
interest for the sake of the team or
organization

In responsive to our
immediate self interest if they
can be met by getting the
work done

Alters our need level (after
Maslow) and expands our range
of wants and needs.

Managing conflicts

Manage conflicts elevate performance and help team be better.

Conflict:

–

the discord (dysonans) that arises when the goals, interests or values of different individuals
or groups are incompatible and those individuals or groups block one another's attempts to
achieve their objectives.

–

Is behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some others persons' good

Positive outcomes of conflict

–

better ideas are produced;

–

people forced to search for new approaches;

–

long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved;

–

clarification of individuals views

–

stimulation of interest and capacity

–

a chance for people to test their capacity (potential)

Negative outcomes of conflict

–

some people feel defeated and demanded;

–

the distance between people increased;

–

a climate of mistrust and suspicion developed;

–

individuals and groups concentrated on their own narrow interests;

–

resistance developed rather than teamwork

–

an increase in employee turnover

Types of conflict

–

interpersonal conflict – between individual members of an organization, occurring because
of differences in their goals or values

–

intragroup conflict – conflict that arises within a group, team or department

–

intergroup conflict – conflict that occurs between groups, teams or department

–

interorganizational conflict – conflict that arises across the organization

Sources of conflict

–

different goals and time horizons;

–

differences in perception: results in different people attaching different meanings to the
same stimuli (bodźce), as perceptions become a person's reality, valuer judgments can be a
potential major source of conflict;

–

overlapping (zachodząca na siebie) authority – someone claims authority for the same
activities or tasks;

–

departmentalization and specialization – differing goals and internal environments of
departments are potential source of conflict;

–

task nature of work activities, task interdependence – when we are assigned a group
project and we are having a group member who consistently fails to get things done on
time, it creates some conflict because other group members are dependent on the late
member's contributions to complete the project;

–

different evaluation of reward system – the way in which independent group, teams or
departments are evaluated and rewarded;

–

scarce resources – individuals and groups have to fight for their share, the greater the
limitation of resources, the greater the potential for conflict;

–

status inconsistencies (niespójność), inequitable treatment – the fact that some
individuals, group, teams or departments within an organization can also create a conflict;

–

violation of territory – someone enters without permission (its my room!);

–

environmental change;

–

individual sources – attitudes, personality characteristics, particular needs, illness, stress;

–

group sources – group skills, informal organization and group norms;

–

organizational sources – communication, authority sources, leadership style, managerial
behaviour;

–

the age gap;

–

role conflicts – arises from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and needs to be
distingued (?) from personality clashes; these arise from incompatibility between two or
more people as individuals even through their roles may be defined clearly and understand
fully;

–

role ambiguity – arises when there is lack of clarity as to the precise requirements of the
role and the person is unsure what to do;

–

role incompatibility – occurs when a person faces a situation in which simultaneous
different or contradictory expectations create inconsistency;

–

Role overload – is when a person faces too many separate roles or too great a variety of
expectations;

–

role underload – can arise when the prescribed role expectations fall short of the person's
own perception of their role.

Conflict management strategies

–

Compromise – a way of managing conflict in which part is concerned about not only it's
own goal accomplishment, but also the goal accomplishment of the other part and is willing
to engage in a give-and-take exchange and make concessions until a reasonable resolution of
the conflict reached.

–

Collaboration – a way of managing conflict in which both parts try to satisfy their goals by
coming up with an approach (zbliżenie) that leaves them both better off and does not require
concession (ustępstwo) on issues that are important to either part.

–

Accomodation – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which one part, typically with
a weaker power, gives in to the demands of other, more powerful part. It typically takes
place when one part has more power than other and is able to pursue it's goal attainment at
the expense of the weaker part. (buttery butter isn't it?)

–

Avoidance – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which the two parts try to ignore
the problem and do nothing to resolve their differences. The real source of a disagreement
has not been addressed, conflict is likely to continue and communication and cooperation
are hindered (powstrzymany)

–

Competition – an ineffective conflict handling approach in which each parts tries to
maximize it's own gain and has little interests in understanding the others parts position and
in arriving at a solution that will allow both parts to achieve their goals competition can
actually escalate levels of conflict as each parts tries to out maneuver the others.

Strategies focused on individuals

–

Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict;

–

increasing diversity awareness and skills;

–

practicing job rotation or temporary assignments

–

using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary

Strategies focused on the whole organization

–

changing an organization's structure or culture;

–

altering the source of conflict.

Other strategies

–

clarification of goals and objectives;

–

resource distribution;

–

human resource management policies and procedures;

–

non-monetary reward;

–

development of interpersonal/group process skills;

–

group activities

–

leadership and management;

–

organizational processes;

–

socio-technological approach.

Communicating

Communication

–

the transfer and understanding of meaning

Interpersonal communication

–

between two or more people

Organizational communication

–

all the patterns, network and systems of communication within organization.

Functions of communication

–

acts to control member behaviour in several ways;

–

encourage motivation

–

provides a release for emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs

–

provides information;

The interpersonal communication process

Barriers to effective interpersonal communication
(being a piórkowska...)

- Interpersonal level

–

filtering;

–

selective perception of the receiver;

–

frame of difference, (helps interpret complex info);

–

emotions;

–

informational overload ,(too much info may be too much for our receiver);

–

defensiveness (being fear of sth. guilty, being judgmental);

–

nonverbal cues;

- Organizational level

–

hierarchical (barriers resulting from a formal structure);

–

functional (resulting from differences between functional departments);

- Cultural level

–

national culture (different countries, different nations);

–

high/low context, (situational level);

–

stereotyping;

–

ethnocentrism, (eg. 'our country is the best')

–

cultural distance

Overcoming the communication barriers at the interpersonal level

–

use feedback

–

improve sending skills – simplify language, organize writing as the logical thought process
(reports, memos), understand the member of the team;

–

improve listening skills – be more open minded, develop empathy, listen actively, constrain
emotions, observe nonverbal clues.

Model of communication

–

verbal communication – oral ( conversation, speeches, telephone calls, video conferences),
written (letters, memos, reports, emails)

–

nonverbal communication – dress, speech, intonation, gesture, facial expression.

Characteristics of communication channels

- formal communication channel

–

authorized, planned and regulated by the organization;

–

reflect the organization formal structure;

–

define who has responsibility for information dissemination (rozpowszechnianie,) and
indicate the paper recipients of work – related information;

–

may be modified by the organization;

–

minor to serve consequences for ignoring them;

-informal communication channel

–

develop through interpersonal activities of team members;

–

not specified by the organization;

–

may be short-lived or long-lasting;

–

are more often lateral than vertical;

–

information flow can be very fast;

–

used for both work – related and network information.

Communication network

- The wheel

–

better for simple tasks - one person responsible
for all spreading information; in most of cases is
not satisfying, for participants, centralized, more
efficient

- The circle

–

decentralized, less efficient, better for
complex tasks (communication), more
satisfying,

Effective Groups And Teams

The two characteristics distinguishing teams from groups:

–

intensity (team is more intense)

–

a specific, overriding team goal

Groups and teams contributions to organizational effectiveness (a competitive

advantage)

–

enhancing performance

–

increasing responsiveness to customers

–

increasing innovation

–

increasing motivation and satisfaction

Types of groups and teams:

–

formal - cross functional; cross-cultural (different types of nationality); top management;
research and development; command groups, talk forces, virtual teams (technology to
communicate);

–

informal – friendship groups, interest groups.

Key elements of group dynamics:

–

group size

–

group tasks (task independence: pooled (dla wszytskich), sequential, reciprocal (obopólny) –
command goals, share goals with tasks)

–

group roles

–

group leadership

–

group development (forming: creating; storming: having a lot of ideas; norming: establish
some roles; preforming: time of transformation; adjourning: prediction of our next
activities, establish actual

–

group norms (the right balance of conformity (zgodność) and deviance (i odchylenie))

Managing change

Agenda

–

organizational change – a notion;

–

organizational change forces;

–

types of scale of change;

–

Grainer's model of change

–

Levins theory of change

–

evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour

–

managing change

Organizational change

–

The movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired
future state to increase it's efficiency and effectiveness

–

any alterations (=change) in people, structure or technology.

The process of accumulating organizational tension → change → adapting → temporary

disorganization/or/searching for efficiency before the change → Revealing effects of a new

organization → effectiveness stabilization → The process of accumulating organizational tension

→ change → adapting → etc.

Forces bringing about the need for change

–

external forces – market place; governmental laws; regulations; technology; labour markets;
economic change

–

internal forces – strategy, workforce, employee attitudes etc.

Types of change

–

evolutionary change – change that is gradual, incremental (narastający) and narrowly
focused;

–

revolutionary change – change that is rapid, dramatic and broadly focused;

–

changing structure – work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of
control, centralization, formalization, job redesign or actual structural design;

–

changing technology – work processes, methods, and equipment

–

changing people – attitudes, expectations, perceptions, and behavior.

Scale of change

–

Fine tuning – at departmental level; making re-alignments (przegrupowanie) to ensure
(zapewnić) that there is match between strategy, structure, people and processes.

–

Incremental adjustment – bit by bit changes to match the changing environment; minor
modifications to strategies or structures.

–

Modular Transformation – major realignment of one or more departments or divisions,
downsizing, re-engineering.

–

Corporate transformation – frame-breaking (znalazłem tylko jako metafora sabotażu...)
effecting the whole organization; discontinuous or frame-breaking change.

Phases of emergent vs planned change

–

Fine tuning and incremental change are usually also seen as emergent, “unfolding
(rozwijając) as it happens”

–

The organization, an open system engages “naturally” in emergent change as it tries to
maintain equilibrium with its changing environment

ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES

FOR CHANGE

TYPES OF CHANGE

Ansoff and

McDonell

(1990)

Strebel

(1996)

Stacey

(1996)

Tushman(19

88)

Dumphy and

Stace (1993)

Grundy

(1983)

Stacey

(1996)

Predictable

weak

Close to

certainty

Converging(fi

ne-tuning)

Fine-tuning

Smooth

incremental

closed

Forcastable

extrapolation

moderate

Close to

certainty

Converging

(incremental)

Incremental

adjustment

Bumpy

incremental

contained

Predictable

threats and

opportunities

Partially

predictable

opportunities

strong

Far from
certainty

Discontinuous

or frame-

breaking

Modular

transormation

discontinuo

Open-

ended

Unpredictabl

e surprises

Corporate

transormation

*Basia work : )

Logical incrementalism (fizolofia)

–

Quinn does not agree that change is either emergent or planned. Quinn believed that
although managers may have ab idea of the destination, they do not really plan change in
“big chunks (kloc, kawał)”

Quinn says that:

–

Managers are flexible about how to get to the destination;

–

managers arrive at strategic change through negotiation with stakeholders

–

managers allow strategic change to evolve (ewoluować) incrementally (przyrostująco), it is
based on agreed purposes and involves content critical re-assessment (ponowną ocenę);

–

the planned change process involves opportunist learning as it goes along.

–

Logical instrumentalism is both emergent and planned (it is ovious)

–

Some theorists think that change might be neither wholly emergent, nor wholly planned

–

instead, change may reflect the organization's life cycle

–

Greiner identifies 4 stages and 5 phases though which organizations go as they grow nsd
develop.

Lewin's Force – Field theory of change

–

To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for
change, reduce resistance to change or do both simultaneously.

STAGE 0

–

the need of change

STAGE 1 – unfreezing:

–

preparing for the need of change;

–

increasing the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the status quo;

–

decreasing the restraining forces that resist change and push behaviour toward the status quo

–

creating in people motivation needed to make change.

STAGE 2 – changing to a new state:

–

occurring new reactions, feelings, opinions, beliefs;

–

internalization ( by creating situations encouraging to learn expected attitudes and behaviour

STAGE 3 – Refreezing to make the change permanent:

–

stabilization and integrating transformations in personality

–

rewarding and supporting by the change agent.

Evolutionary cycle of competitive behaviour

–

The divergent phase, based on innovation, variety beginning when one organization
discovers a new business opportunity, the industry as a whole strive to create differentiated
products and services that add customer value

–

Eventually a breakpoints occurs as the emphasis shifts to the convergent phase, based on
efficiency/survival, which begins with imitation of competitors' best features, and then leads
to an emphasis an reducing costs. Competitors converge an total quality management,
continual, improvement & re-engineering to cut costs and maintain market share. Only the
fittest survive.

RYS

Spotting the breakpoints

Formal methods include:

–

Environmental scanning;

–

Benchmarking;

–

Monitoring, data collection and data interpretation (detecting when a new divergent phase is
about to begin in more difficult because the new wave of innovation cannot yet be seen;

Informal methods include

–

Open minded attitude;

–

Cooperation across the organization;

–

Culture supporting innovation and change

Managing change (steps in the organizational change)

Assessing the need for change

–

recognizing that there is a problem

–

identifying the source of the problem

Deciding on the change to make

–

deciding what the organization's ideal future state would be

–

identifying obstacles to change

Implementing the change

–

deciding whether change will occur from the top down or form the bottom down (??)

–

introducing and managing change

Evaluating the change

–

compering prechange performance with postchange performance

–

using benchmarking

Document Outline