C

ha

pt

er

28

213

Charles T. Lau, MD, and
S. William Stavropoulos, MD

Patient Sedation and Pain ManageMent

  1.  What is the purpose of sedation and pain management during an interventional 

radiology procedure?

The purpose is to enable a patient to tolerate a potentially painful procedure yet still maintain satisfactory 

cardiopulmonary function and the ability to cooperate with verbal commands and tactile stimuli.

  2.  What is the difference between analgesia and anesthesia?

Analgesia is the relief of pain without alteration of a patient’s state of awareness. Anesthesia is the state  

of unconsciousness.

  3.  What is the difference between anxiolysis and amnesia?

Anxiolysis is the relief of fear or anxiety without alteration of awareness. Amnesia is the loss of memory.

  4.  What capabilities should the patient maintain during conscious sedation?

The patient should:

•

  Remain responsive and cooperative.

•

  Maintain spontaneous ventilation.

•

  Be able to protect the airway.

•

  Maintain protective reflexes.

  5.  Describe the levels of patient sedation.

The levels of patient sedation exist along a continuum: light sedation, moderate sedation, deep sedation, and general 

anesthesia. A patient under light sedation can respond to stimuli and maintains intact airway reflexes. A patient under 

moderate sedation should maintain spontaneous ventilation and be able to protect the airway. A patient under deep 

sedation can respond to vigorous stimuli, but may lack airway reflexes. A patient under general anesthesia has no 

response to stimuli and lacks all protective reflexes.

  6.  List the details that should be included in the presedation evaluation of a patient.

•

  Patient medical history

•

  Previous adverse experience to sedation or anesthesia

•

  Current medication use and drug allergies

•

  Time and nature of last oral intake

•

  History of alcohol or substance abuse

•

  Focused physical examination including heart, lungs, and airway

•

  Pertinent clinical laboratory findings

  7.  How long should a patient typically fast before undergoing conscious sedation?

A patient should not have solid foods for 6 to 8 hours and clear liquids for 2 to 3 hours before undergoing 

sedation.

  8.  The physical status of a patient is often quantitated on a 5-point scale, known 

as the American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Assessment Status. 

Describe this scale.

•

  Class I: Healthy patient

•

  Class II: Mild to moderate systemic disturbance, well controlled

•

  Class III: Severe systemic disturbance that limits normal activities

•

  Class IV: Severe life-threatening illness

•

  Class V: Moribund, poor chance for survival

214

Patient Sedation and Pain ManageMent

  9.  Commonly, conscious sedation is administered by the provider (e.g., interventional 

radiologist) with patient monitoring provided by a qualified nurse. What patient 

factors should influence a provider to consider consulting an anesthesiologist to 

administer conscious sedation?

Patient factor should include:

•

  ASA classification of III, IV, or V.

•

  Obesity.

•

  Pregnancy.

•

  Mental incapacity.

•

  Extremes of age.

 10.  What patient factors must be monitored during conscious sedation?

Level of consciousness, ventilation, oxygenation, and blood pressure should be monitored, along with continuous cardiac 

monitoring.

 11.  What equipment must be present when administering conscious sedation to  

a patient?

A patient undergoing conscious sedation should be under direct observation until recovery is complete. Equipment 

needed to monitor oxygenation; blood pressure; and heart rate, rhythm, and waveform should be present. 

Pharmacologic antagonists and commonly used agents, supplemental oxygen, a defibrillator, and appropriate equipment 

to establish airway and provide positive-pressure ventilation need to be at hand.

 12.  What pharmacologic agents are commonly used for patients undergoing conscious 

sedation? What is their reversal agent?

Benzodiazepines are typically used to provide conscious sedation. Common benzodiazepines include midazolam, 

lorazepam, and diazepam. Flumazenil is used as a reversal agent for benzodiazepines. The effect of flumazenil is usually 

visible in 2 minutes, with peak effects at 10 minutes. In adults, an initial dose of 1 mg may be needed.

 13.  What are the usual effects of benzodiazepines?

Benzodiazepines produce sedation and amnesia, but do not provide analgesia. Significant adverse effects of 

benzodiazepines include respiratory and cardiovascular depression. Paradoxic reactions can occur with benzodiazepines 

and are more common in the elderly.

 14.  What pharmacologic agents are commonly used for pain control? What is their 

reversal agent?

Opiates are commonly used to provide pain control. Commonly used opiates include fentanyl, morphine, and meperidine. 

Naloxone is used as a reversal agent for opiates and is typically administered as 0.4-mg intravenous doses (in adults) 

to a total of 2 mg. The effect of naloxone is usually visible in 2 to 3 minutes; however, its duration of action may be 

substantially shorter than many long-acting opiates, and repeated dosing may be necessary.

 15.  What are the typical effects of opiates?

Opiates provide systemic analgesia, mild anxiolysis, and mild sedation. Opiates do not induce amnesia.

 16.  What pharmacologic agent used for pain control is contraindicated in patients taking 

a monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor?

Meperidine administered to patients taking MAO inhibitors can cause various undesirable and potentially lethal side 

effects and is contraindicated. Side effects include agitation; fever; and seizures progressing in some instances to coma, 

apnea, and death. The narcotic analgesic of choice for patients taking MAO inhibitors is morphine.

 17.  What are the strategies for dealing with a patient who has a known hypersensitivity 

to iodinated contrast agents?

Adverse reactions to iodinated contrast agents range from nuisance side effects, such as hives and emesis, to 

potentially lethal reactions, such as anaphylaxis and laryngeal edema. Patients with a history of even a minor 

hypersensitivity reaction to contrast agent may be at increased risk for a severe reaction, and special precautions 

should be exercised when administering contrast agent to these patients. Premedicating the patient with oral steroids 

and the use of low-osmolar contrast agents may reduce the risk of minor reactions, but there is no proof that this 

strategy prevents or reduces the risk of lethal contrast agent reactions. Alternative contrast agents, such as gadolinium 

or CO

2

 or both, may be used in patients with a history of severe contrast agent reactions. If an iodinated contrast agent 

must be used in a patient with a history of bronchospasm, laryngeal edema, or anaphylaxis, it may be wise to have an 

anesthesiologist standing by.

Patient Sedation and Pain ManageMent

215

interventional radiology

 18.  List possible options for the management of an acute vasovagal reaction.

A rapid infusion of normal saline or atropine (0.6 to 1 mg) may be given intravenously.

 19.  What are the ABCs of patient resuscitation?

Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) guidelines provide a series of algorithms regarding distressed patients in various 

clinical settings. The ABCs of resuscitation is a part of these algorithms. Intervention in a patient with an unstable 

condition should always begin with the establishment of an Airway, followed by assessment of Breathing (ventilation) 

and Circulation (heart rate and blood pressure).

 20.  Describe the management of acute hypotension.

Remember your ABCs! During conscious sedation, an overdose of either a benzodiazepine or an opiate may cause 

respiratory depression that manifests as acute hypotension. Vigorous stimulation (sternal rub) may remedy the situation. 

If not, pharmacologic reversal may be needed. If hypoxia is not the etiology of the hypotension, evaluation of a patient’s 

heart rate provides a simple algorithm for treating acute hypotension. A vasovagal reaction should be suspected if the 

patient is bradycardic, and treatment should proceed accordingly. If the patient is tachycardic, one should immediately 

evaluate for a source of blood loss. A fluid challenge with normal saline may help determine whether a patient has 

intravascular volume depletion. Pharmacologic intervention with epinephrine, phenylephrine, or dopamine may be 

indicated if the patient fails to respond to the fluid challenge. A complete algorithm for treating hypotension can be 

found in the ACLS guidelines.

 21.  List possible options for the management of an acute hypertensive crisis.

During a procedure, pain and anxiety may precipitate hypertension. A benzodiazepine, such as midazolam (Versed), 

mixed with an opiate, such as fentanyl, is likely to decrease the blood pressure of an uncomfortable or anxious patient. 

To treat a patient in true hypertensive crisis further pharmacologic intervention may be needed. Intravenous labetalol, 

given as a bolus or a constant infusion, often normalizes blood pressure. Hydralazine and nitroprusside are other 

intravenous agents that may also be useful in this setting.

 22.  How can acute pulmonary edema be managed?

Pulmonary edema interferes with the ability to oxygenate blood. Therapy consists of securing an airway, providing 

supplemental oxygen, and administering intravenous furosemide or other agents to induce diuresis.

 23.  Describe the immediate options for management of an anaphylactic reaction.

An anaphylactic reaction can be rapidly fatal. An airway should be secured immediately, and oxygen should be 

administered. The mainstay of therapy consists of epinephrine (1:1000), 0.1 to 0.3 mL given subcutaneously every  

15 minutes up to 1 mL total. Additional therapy includes saline for pressure support, diphenhydramine (50 mg 

intravenously), methylprednisolone (50 mg intravenously), and dopamine (5 to 10 

μg/kg/min intravenously). 

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation may be required.

 24.  Describe the immediate options for management of acute laryngeal edema.

Laryngeal edema may lead to airway obstruction and death. An airway should be established, and oxygen should be 

administered. Epinephrine (1:1000), 0.1 to 0.3 mL given subcutaneously every 15 minutes up to 1 mL total, should be 

administered immediately. Additional agents include diphenhydramine (50 mg intravenously) and cimetidine (300 mg 

by mouth).

 25.  Describe the immediate options for management of bronchospasm.

The patient should be monitored closely, and oxygen should be administered by nasal cannula or facemask. In severe 

cases, intubation may be required. Pharmacologic treatment includes epinephrine (1:1000), 0.1 to 0.3 mL given 

Key Points: Patient Sedation and Pain Management

1.  A patient under moderate sedation should maintain spontaneous ventilation and be able to protect the airway.

2.  The following equipment should be present when administering conscious sedation: pharmacologic 

antagonists, appropriate equipment to establish airway and provide positive-pressure ventilation, supplemental 

oxygen, and a defibrillator.

3.  The medications used to treat an anaphylactic reaction include diphenhydramine, methylprednisolone, and 

epinephrine.

4.  Naloxone is used as a reversal agent for opiates.

5.  Flumazenil is used as a reversal agent for benzodiazepines.

6.  ACLS guidelines provide complete recommendations for the distressed patient.

7.  Evaluation of a patient with an unstable condition should always begin with the ABCs.

216

Patient Sedation and Pain ManageMent

subcutaneously every 15 minutes up to 1 mL total, and aminophylline (4 to 6 mg/kg intravenous loading dose, then 

25 mg/min continuous infusion). These agents may be supplemented with inhaled albuterol or metaproterenol.

 26.  What are possible options for the management of generalized urticaria?

A patient with generalized urticaria can be treated with either diphenhydramine (50 mg intravenously) or cimetidine 

(300 mg by mouth). Vital signs should be obtained, and the patient should be observed to ensure that a more severe 

reaction is not evolving. The reaction should be documented in the patient’s medical record.

B

iBliography

[1]  Ray CE, Turner JH, Cothren CG, Moore EE, Smith W, Scatorchia G, et al., Do CT emergency CT scans add value in hemodynamically 

unstable patients undergoing pelvic embolization?, 2004 Society of Interventional Radiology, 29th Annual Scientific Meeting, Phoenix 

Arizona.

[2]  M. Wojtowycz, Handbook of Interventional Radiology and Angiography, second ed., St. Louis, Mosby, 1995.

Website 

http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic695.htm