Table of Contents

Social Justice and Its Problems 1

Ahmad Vaezi

Political, Economic Factors Threatening 18

Peace and Justice in Contemporary World

H. Pischler, H. Schnider

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles 38

Ali Akbar Rashad

Peace and Peacefulness: An Islamic Approach 52

Mohsen Alviri

Love as the Fundamental Origin of Tolerance 69

In the Opinions of Mawlawī Rūmī and Rāmakrishna

Fayyaz Gharaei

The search for justice 90

Mohammad Ali Shomali

An Introduction to Concept of Justice 97

in Christianity

Saeed Karimi

Abstract 115

Managing Director: Hojjatoleslam Mahmood Mohammadi Araqi

Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Asghar Va'ezee

Vice editor-in-Chief: Yasser Hedayati

Translators: Dr. Sadrodin Moosavi, Dr. Sattar Oodi

Reza Mostafazadegan, Azam Husseini

Editor of English group: Dr. Sadrodin Moosavi

Graphic and Layout: Farhad Jam

Islamic Culture and Relations Organization

Department of Education and Research

Center for Interreligious Dialogue

No. 14, Imam Khomeyni Complex, Resalat Highway, Tehran, Iran

[e-mail]

II

Dialogue

Editor's Note

As two concepts that have obsessed today's man more than any other

time, peace and justice have created a number of approaches. The

quiddity of peace and justice, which give an answer to the conceptual

nature of these two concepts, are among the most theoretical and

fundamental bases of the thought of human beings man who live in the

society, the human beings who coexist with each other consciously and

religiously. Today's man is from one aspect a religious man. Of course

religiosity has always lived with man and is a pragmatic approach

which has intermingled with fundamental rational and theoretical

bases. And today's man lives with it either as a religious experience or

as a religious idea.

The materialization of justice and peace is a longstanding aspiration of

man, who for his survival, has paid attention to these two concepts since

the generation of life. He has also tried to find out the relations between

these two concepts, of course in accordance to his worldview. It is not

man's today question. A philosopher like Socrates asks: “Is every just

act in accordance with religion or every act which is in accordance with

religion is congruent with justice? Or, he says: every just act is not

always in accordance with religion, but it sometimes is and sometimes

not.” If we look at these questions more deeply, we will realize that

the definition of justice as given by the Greek classic thinkers, that

is, putting everything in its proper place - a definition which has been

used for centuries - according to some thinkers may not be an effective

definition for today's man. The concept of peace too has the same nature.

Hence, the concepts of peace and justice just like our reading of religion

have undergone changes in the modern society. Some thinkers maintain

that the classic definitions can not clarify the relations between religion,

peace and justice. In this edition of the Dialogue we have tried to revisit

the concepts of peace and justice from the viewpoint of religion. Hence

the articles in this edition focus on religion, peace and justice. We hope

that the readers will enjoy reading the articles of this edition.

The issue of social justice or distributive justice has

always occupied a major chunk of the written history

of research about justice. Aristotle in his famous book,

The Nichomachean Ethics, divides justice into two parts: the

distributive justice and the retributive justice. The renowned

Muslim philosopher, Farabi, in his book, Fosus al-Modoni,

divides justice into two parts: general and particular. Justice in

its particular sense that has been discussed in the Chapter 58

of his book is further divided into two parts, whose first part is

distributive justice. He emphasizes that every member of the

city (medina) has a share of the common good (property, wealth,

human dignity, social positions and statuses, health, hygiene,

etc.) that they should receive on the basis of their entitlements

and merits.

Social Justice and Its Problems

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

Ahmad Vaezi*

* PROFESSOR OF SEMINARY

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The distributive justice enters a new phase with the publication of

John Rawls book, A Theory of Justice.1 In his standpoint, justice is

not a value at par with other effective values in the social system

and human relations, rather, it is the prime and most superior social

value and its weight and status is equal to that of truth in the field

of human knowledge and episteme. As we evaluate the credibility

and authenticity of every epistemological theory and postulate

with the issue of truth and its conformity with it, the credibility and

rightfulness of a social system too should be evaluated on the basis

of its conformity and compatibility with the principles of justice.2

The new theories of justice that have come to the fore as rivals of

Rawls' theory of justice or as critical development of his theory,

have turned the issue of distributive justice into one of the most

fundamental pivots of contemporary political philosophy. The

present article is an attempt to give a general picture of the most

important issues and theoretical challenges of research about justice.

It is therefore necessary to give some explanations about justice as a

criterion for assessment of social structures.

Justice as a Definition of Social Structure

As a collection of human beings who live together and have diverse

relations and cultural, economic and political interactions, society

has its own structure in all its simple and complex forms. The

complex industrial societies of today as well as the simple past

societies enjoy the common feature that they have not been merely

constituted of assembly of individuals, rather, they have their own

specific structures which distinguish them from other perceivable

social forms. The fundamental structure of a society is constituted

of some institutions that determine the way of access of individuals

to the resources by which they fulfill their needs. The raison d'etre

of the formation of the society is awareness of man of the fact

that he can fulfill some of his needs only within the framework of

society - at least he can fulfill them more easily. These resources

may be divided into three groups: power; social status and position;

and wealth. In every society, people are ready to shoulder some

responsibilities, undertake some duties and yield to the requirements

of social cooperation in order to have access to these resources.

Social Justice and Its Problems

3

Hence the structure of a society is constituted of some institutions

that determine the method of access to these resources and set the

rights and duties of the individuals living within it. In other words,

the systems of rights, duties, and distribution of wealth, opportunities

and endowments of the society are determined by its fundamental

structure and institutions.

Some of the institutions that constitute the main body of the

social structure are: the laws determining the fundamental rights,

advantages, equal or unequal privileges of the individuals; the

economic system and rules governing the process of production, and

distribution; the political system and distribution of political power,

the share and role of individuals in the processes of decision-making

for political, social and educational systems; the level and method of

people's access to education and scientific progress; their access to

healthcare; taxing system; social rights of the weak and needy strata;

and the laws determining the ways of utilization and distribution

of the endowments, responsibilities and duties for the individuals

and groups. These institutions and organizations constitute the

structure of the society and the issue of social justice or distributive

justice is connected to the way of evolution of social structure.

The main question with regard to social justice is the criteria and

principles dominating the order of social structures: What criteria

and principles should dominate the order of social structure to be

able to establish a just society whose fundamental structure is based

on the principles of justice? As mentioned above, a major chunk of

the written literature of the contemporary era in the field of political

philosophy as well as what is known as that of the theories of justice

today has been allocated to attempts to provide an answer to this

question.

Undoubtedly this topic is profound and controversial and has a vide

scope some of whose aspects are related to other epistemological

disciplines such as philosophy of ethics, theory of self, philosophy

of law, and epistemology. It is pertinent here to enumerate some

fundamental questions related to the issue of social justice. Naturally,

this picture is selective and will not encompass all the related

questions and queries. Moreover, the order of their enumeration does

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not necessarily mean their logical order or their priority. Besides,

the centrality of these questions does not mean that all theories

of justice offered by various schools of thought have necessarily

discussed and given a clear answer to all of these questions.

What is offered below is in fact a collection of the main sporadic

concerns of the theories of justice. The interested scholars who have

discussed this topic from various dimensions might have skipped or

neglected some other aspects. The present paper maintains that an

all-comprehensive theory of justice must provide answers to all of

these fundamental questions; else, it will be incomplete and at times

not even defendable.

Before discussing the pivotal problems of social justice in details, it

is necessary to emphasize that the domain of social justice is limited

to the confines of nation-state, that is, it discusses the depiction of

a just social structure that has a specific government and territory

and wants social cooperation within that society and its institutions

as well as the distribution of immunities, opportunities, duties and

rights to be based on just principles and criteria. Therefore, as John

Rawls emphasizes, the issue of just relations among the nations and

societies (international justice) and the depiction of just treatment of

the nature and other extraterritorial beings by the human beings will

be the focal point of social justice in our discussion.3 Now it is time

to discuss the main pivots of the issue of distributive justice.

Criteria of Justice

Research in the content of various theories of justice unveils the fact

that each of these theories have insisted on a specific element as the

basis and foundation of their principles of justice. These criteria are

called ultimate value by Will Kymlicka.4

For instance, from the viewpoint of the classic liberals and

contemporary libertarians, liberty is an ultimate value and constitutes

the main pivot of an ideal society. Hence, Immanuel Kant builds

his theory of justice on the pivot of maximizing civil and political

freedoms and his aim is that the society should attain a rational,

ideal social order in which not only civil and political freedoms of

the individuals are respected, but the constitutions of the societies

Social Justice and Its Problems

5

are prepared in a manner that these freedoms reach their maximum

level. As a serious advocate of traditional idea of liberalism and

libertarianism, Robert Nazick, in his theory of justice emphasizes

on the individual freedoms, particularly in the field of economy and

free market, as the ultimate value.

On the other hand, for the socialists, usually the element of

equality, particularly the issue of need is the ultimate value. Those

who classify the priorities on the basis of needs in the society and

maintain that the social structure should be formed in a manner that

fundamental needs of every individual is fulfilled in the best manner

in the society, try to depict need as an ultimate value and as an ethical

foundation for politics and management of the society. According

to this approach, fulfilling the needs of the people is the most

fundamental function of the government, connecting the sphere of

power and jurisdiction of government to the theory of needs - which

is also seen among the neo-liberals

advocating the establishment of

a welfare state. Considering need

as the fundamental need means

that other categories such as

individual freedom, entitlement

and moral worth are not important

as a criterion or base for just distribution. For instance, George V.

and P. Wilding, emphasizing the significance of need as a base for

just distribution, write on the cover of their book:

The most fundamental principle of social politics is that resources,

either in the field of health, education, housing or income, should be

distributed on the basis of needs.5

Clearly choosing the need as the criterion and base of establishment

of social justice and just distribution necessarily requires imposition

of economic limitations in the free market and levying certain taxes

for protection of the vulnerable strata and fulfillment of their needs,

that is, paying attention to the issue of redistribution of wealth and

creation of equal opportunities. This will not be approved of by

the classic liberals and neo-liberals. In their viewpoints, needs and

social and economic rights defined on the basis of needs must not

In communitarianism, the issue of common good

is the ultimate value and is the main criterion for

justice, while in utilitarianism, the issue of utility

and its maximization in the society is the ultimate

value and basis of justice. In feminism, androgyny

is the ultimate value of justice.

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be an obstacle in the way of individual freedoms and independence

in various economic, political, and cultural fields. Referring to

Kant, Nazick maintains that the poor and the needy do not have any

rights and hence there is no encroachment of the safe perimeters

of their individual independence and freedom. This underlines the

clear differences between these two arenas of thought regarding

their ultimate value in respect of justice. He writes: On the basis

of Kantian fundamental principle, individuals must be considered

the ultimate objective and not as instruments; individuals must

not be used or victimized as a means for the fulfillment of others'

objectives. Individuals' independence is inviolable.6

In communitarianism, the issue of common good is the ultimate

value and is the main criterion for justice, while in utilitarianism,

the issue of utility and its maximization in the society is the ultimate

value and basis of justice. In feminism, androgyny is the ultimate

value of justice.

As the most outstanding theory of justice of recent decades, Rawls'

theory of justice emphasizes on the contractual agreement as the

basis and criteria for determining the principles of justice. He does

not offer any preconception about justice and refers the content of the

principles of justice to the agreement reached between the individuals

in the original position.7 As he emphasizes in the introduction of his

book, The Theory of Justice, his ideas are closely related to the

tradition of social contract which was forwarded by such thinkers as

John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant, while he

tried to offer a more developed and complete model of this approach,

devoid of the problems impeding the previous readings.8

There are two fundamental questions regarding the criterion and

ultimate value of justice: first, which criterion offered by the

theoreticians of justice is prior to others and should be considered

the ultimate value and fundamental criterion of distributive justice?

And second, is it at all necessary to introduce a value as the base

and ultimate value of social justice? Instead of relying on a single

value, it might be more appropriate to emphasize on a set of values

and criteria, each of which may be an outstanding criterion for

Social Justice and Its Problems

7

distribution of rights, duties and resources. For instance, with regard

to the distribution of sources of power, political power and rational

access of individuals to the sources of wealth and economic incomes,

emphasis should be laid on equal opportunities and fulfillment of the

needs of the individuals, while in the realm of sovereign rules in the

field of culture, the criteria should be ethical values.

All these arguments will stand valid only when we accept that

justice is the ultimate value and the only criterion for evaluation of

an ideal social structure and also it is contingent on the acceptance

of the argument that the weight and significance of justice for social

system and structures meant for social cooperation is equal to that of

truth in the field of knowledge and theoretical studies. However, this

issue lends itself to further discussions and it may not be possible

to assess the ideal social structure with the criterion of distributive

justice and hence it may be necessary to trace the footprint of some

values other than justice.

The Problem of Universalism

Without any doubt every society has a network of diverse relations

and social goods. But what is considered good in view of the

individuals has diverse dimensions. Some of the social goods are:

wealth, social security, religion, religious activities, division of

labor, social statuses and positions, political power, education,

entertainments, and leisure hours. The distributive justice and just

order of social system should ensure just access of the individuals

to these sources and social goods. One of the main challenges to

the theories of social justice is the possibility of offering universal

principles for just distribution of resources and social goods. The

advocates of this issue who in effect defend universalism maintain

that a single definition of distributive justice and presentation of

universal principles for distributive justice will be applicable to all

these arenas of social goods. They also argue that it is not necessary

to give a specific definition of justice or distributive justice for every

specific case on the basis of the rules governing that case.

As emphasized by Michael Walzer,9 the universalistic approach has

always remained dominant in the history of philosophical thought

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and theories of justice. It has been a prevalent notion since the time

of Plato that only one just distributive system is perceivable and

every thinker has tried to elaborate on it and offer the contents of

this single distributive system - while this aspect is clearer in Rawls'

ideas. He considers the agreed principles of the original condition as

justice itself and the only base for laying the foundations of the main

structure of the society and does not make any distinction between

the bases of distribution in various arenas of social goods.

In contrast, some theoreticians take a critical stance vis-à-vis

any interpretation of social justice that claims universalism. The

outstanding figure of this critical approach is Michael Walzer

who defends pluralism in the field of social justice in his book,

Spheres of Justice. He maintains that every sphere of social goods

has its own specifications and backgrounds and since there is a

specific understanding of goods in every sphere, it is not possible

to give universal principles for the distribution of social goods.

Therefore, there is no justification to offer similar principles for

the just distribution of political power and educational facilities or

entertainments. What is considered justice in one sphere of various

spheres of social goods may not be applicable to other spheres.

However, the possibility or impossibility of universalism is a pivotal

question to which every theory of justice before going into the details

of its contents about social justice must provide a clear answer.

Philosophical Foundations and Theory of Justice

The theories of justice are explicitly or implicitly based on specific

philosophical, epistemological and ethical presuppositions and

normally do not deny that they offer a model for life which they have

realized is right and correct and that this rightfulness and correctness

is based on their specific philosophical approach to man, society and

ethic. In some theories of justice this philosophical reliance is more

visible. For instance, in the ideas of Kant on justice, the principles of

justice, which are the basis of man's external behavior and his social

relationship, depict a good, ethical life for man. These principles

are recognized by pure reason and their judgments are certain and

necessary. The comprehension of these judgments are carried out by

Social Justice and Its Problems

9

individuals who have liberated themselves from personal prejudices

and objectives and listen to the call of their conscience and reason

only with good intention (intention of discharging the duty). Hence,

the practical judgments of pure reason are the depicters of an ethical

discipline which delineate the necessary and desirable ethical

system of an ideal social and individual life and provide answers to

man's epistemological queries in the filed of ethic and a desirable,

just social life. Therefore, Kant's theory of justice is clearly based

on a specific ethical epistemology and metaphysical approach to

transcendental self, entailing the introduction of a comprehensive

ethical doctrine.

In contrast to this viewpoint which emphasizes on the impossibility

of forwarding a freestanding (without reliance on a specific

philosophical and ethical foundation) theory of justice, John Rawls

in his later writings emphasized that it is possible to offer a theory of

justice which is merely political without relying on a comprehensive

philosophical or ethical doctrine. He maintains that his political

understanding of justice and its principles is freestanding. In his

opinion it is possible to delineate a framework for a just social

cooperation that is accepted by all authors of comprehensive

rational, ethical, religious, philosophical doctrines and consider it

the foundation of social structure. This framework is delineated by

freestanding (not advocating a specific comprehensive philosophical

or ethical theory) principles, which is called political liberalism by

him.10 On the basis of this political approach to justice, the ideal

liberal society provides room for ethical, religious and philosophical

pluralism and plurality and acts in a manner that others would approve

of this just framework which is not based on a specific comprehensive

doctrine, for the principles of political justice do not claim to provide

answers to ethical and philosophical questions, leaving the answers to

these questions to comprehensive ethical and philosophical doctrines.

Hence there are no rivals to be sensitive towards them.11

This Rawls' claim is very controversial and many thinkers maintain

that basically it is not possible to offer a theory of justice which lacks

a philosophical, value basis and hence he faces serious challenges in

this regard.

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The Problem of Justification of Principles of Justice

Every theory of social justice is a proposal for organizing the

social structure of the society and providing ideal situation for

social cooperation, which naturally claims to be superior to other

rival theories and in some cases claims to be the only perceivable

necessary true example of ideal society. Therefore, any theory of

justice is immediately entangled with the problem of justification,

that is, it should clarify its demonstrative bases and show how it

proves its superiority over rival theories.

Another question is: Why should one remain committed to the

principles of the proposed justice and consider them the basis of

social structure? This question is exactly like another question: Why

should one live an ethical life? In fact, question about the secret of

legitimacy and justification of the principles of justice is a universal

question for all sorts of distributive justice.

The answers given by the theoreticians of justice to this question are

different and stem from their universal epistemological foundations,

particularly their epistemological fundamentals with regard to the

issues of value and morality (ethical epistemology). However,

some of these thinkers like Robert Nazick, basically do not engage

in the problem of justification and demonstrative proof of their

understanding of the principles of justice, confining themselves

to elaboration of their own understanding of the content of social

justice and criticism of the ideas of the rivals. It is obvious that the

neglect of such issues does not mean that they are insignificant. The

expectation that a theory of distributive justice should be able to

prove its superiority over other rival theories is quite a rational and

justifiable expectation.

Relying on the possibility of demonstration - whether rational

demonstration and inductive acknowledgement or referring to

sound reason and ethical conscience - of their understanding of

the content and definition of justice, the intuitionists have a clear

stance towards the question of justifiability of principles of justice.

Each theory by relying on its own epistemology of value and ethical

issues tries to acknowledge and prove its desirable, just social order.

Social Justice and Its Problems

11

Given the specific epistemological status Kant designates to the pure

reason and categorical imperatives, that are discussed in details by

him in his writings, particularly in “Evaluation of Pure Reason”, he

searches for the roots of the principles of justice and their credibility

in the pure reason and ethical categorical imperatives (practical

judgment of pure reason stemming from good intention which is the

intention of discharging the duties).

Rawls maintains that the roots of legitimacy and truthfulness of

the principles of justice advocated by him lie in the fairness of the

conditions of selection and election of the principles of justice by

individuals in the perceived original position. The agreement reached

between the individuals in just conditions guarantees the credibility

and fairness of these principles. In his opinion, the fairness of the

conditions of agreement and contract between the individuals vis-àvis

the principles of justice stems from the fact that the individuals in

the original position were ignorant

and unaware of the conditions

of their individual advantages,

statuses, capabilities and abilities

and hence they all together under

equal conditions select the rational

choice of principles of justice

advocated by Rawls from amongst other rival principles.

The renowned American philosopher, Richard Rorty, in his famous

article, “The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy,”12 maintains that

it is not basically necessary for political theory or theory of justice

to rely on demonstrative and philosophical bases to justify itself.

What is important is the compatibility of the said theory with the

fabric of the accepted public culture and values in a political and

social culture. In his viewpoint, Rawls' attempt in his theory of

justice is a kind of classification and categorization of the dominant

approaches and values dominating the Western and American liberal

political culture. Due to whatever reason, justifiable or unjustifiable,

liberal values dominate the public and political cultures of the

Western industrial societies and Rawls' principles of justice borrow

their credibility from their congruence with those values and

One of the main challenges to the theories

of social justice is the possibility of offering

universal principles for just distribution of

resources and social goods

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political-social culture without relying on demonstrable, rational

philosophical foundations.

However, the problem of justification in social justice and its

evasion or underestimating is considered an outstanding weakness

of a theory of justice. Among the pivotal and key issues of this

subject is whether the proposed principles of justice are forwarded as

issues that enjoy truth or as a rational and agreeable framework for

launching a fair social cooperation. Those who advocate the former

idea, consider such an ethical and social order possible and necessary

in proving the necessity, desirability and finality of their theory. In

contrast, the second group do not consider the logic dominating the

social justice a traditional epistemological logic whose main concern

is quest for truth. Hence, they do not consider themselves free from

attempts to prove the truthfulness and necessity of the principles of

distributive justice. For instance, John Rawls emphasizes that the

approach of political liberalism to justice, contrary to the rational

intuitionists, is not based on endeavors to search for the truth, rather,

the reasonability of the principles of justice is enough. In his opinion,

the principles of truth should neglect the issue of truth in order to be

able to spread their umbrella over all authors of comprehensive,

religious, philosophical, and ethical doctrines and prepare the

grounds for agreement with them over these principles.13

Relations between Right and Good

One of the old controversies in the history of studies of justice is:

which of the two key concepts of right and good should be the pivot

of justice. Whether they are definable independent of each other, or

one should be defined in terms of the other? If the latter stands true,

whether right is defined in terms of good or the other way round?

Or whether regardless of specific attitude towards good, right and

justice are recognizable?

It is pertinent here to mention that right is subject both to discussion

in its ethical sense, meaning ethically being correct and proper as

well as in its legal term that defines a privilege or perimeter for an

individual or a group of individuals that should be respected and

not violated by others. Both ethical and legal meanings of right are

Social Justice and Its Problems

13

related to the issue of social justice and the issue of its priority to

good comes to the fore in both arenas of philosophy of ethic and

distributive justice.

In the realm of ethic, the concepts of right and good are next to such

concepts as ought to and ought not to which are key predicates in

the ethical proposition. Among the ethical schools of thought, the

teleological theories believe in the priority and independence of

good to right (in both its meanings) and maintain that right (moral)

and right (legal) should be defined and acknowledged in terms of the

definition of good, but our understanding of good is not related to

the rightfulness and correctness of acts. In contrast, the deontologists

maintain that the recognition of right and duty is not contingent

upon the introduction of a specific picture. An outstanding example

of deontologism in the history of ethical reflection is Immanuel

Kant who considered the index and criteria of ethicalness of an

act in inattention to the positive or negative outcome of the act and

maintained that no perception of good, felicity and goodness should

be the objective of an ethical act, and what is duty, right and ethical

is recognizable by the reason of the ethical person who does not have

any intention except discharging his duties.14

In the realm of social justice, the reflection of this ethical base

- deontologism - is manifested in the theories of justice of Kant

and John Rawls. Rawls classifies his theory of justice among the

deontologistic theories and maintains that his proposed principles

do not owe their ethical rightfulness and ethical correctness to any

perception of ethical and social good, for they have been chosen

in the original position by the individuals who agreed upon them

without any specific perception of good.15

Priority of right (in its legal term) to good has been emphasized

upon by the liberal thinkers since long time back. The theories of

justice formed within the liberal tradition, regardless of some of their

differences, have maintained that value categories and the perceptions

about good, individual and social felicity should not be conceived

prior to the fundamental rights of the individuals nor the individual

rights and freedoms should be delineated or limited on the basis of

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those perceptions. Without any doubt any analysis of social justice

would bring about some limitations for individuals within the sphere

of their social activities, demanding them to undertake certain duties

and responsibilities and observe some limits and perimeters. The

liberal theories of justice maintain that the basis of these limitations

should not be an ideological perception of a good life or a specific

interpretation of good and human felicity or any comprehensive

religious, philosophical or ethical doctrine, rather the base of these

theories should be the observation of the fundamental rights of the

individuals that are mainly embodied in various individual freedoms

and property rights.

Of course the liberals have always faced controversies when

they have to answer the question as to how human rights could

be depicted independent of any perception of good and through

a value-free outlook. Also the issue of the source of rights,

particularly demonstration of priority of rights and individual

freedoms to other values and ethical objectives, has been among

their serious challenges. Rawls in his later writings, particularly in

his Fifth Speech in his book, Political Liberalism, while trying to

acknowledge the complementary relations between right and good,

also tries to prevent the impact of any comprehensive doctrine about

good on the content of principles of justice and offers a political

justice that can be acknowledged by various theories about good and

felicity. There are some criticisms and controversies about the level

of his success in this endeavor.

Relations between Theory of Justice and Specific Perception of

Individual

On the basis of what we discussed above, it became clear that some

theoreticians of justice such as Kant and Rawls maintain that source

of justice lies in one's specific attitude towards self or person.

Although in two different methods, these two thinkers ultimately

maintain that the judge and evaluator of principles of justice are the

individuals who have specific characteristics, that is, they do not

involve their own objectives, goals and individual wants in their

judgments. In other words, they have been perceived as individuals

who are free from all affairs that may tarnish their fair judgment.

Social Justice and Its Problems

15

These individual judges who choose the principles of justice in

Rawls' view exist in a perceived position (original position) and

in Kant's view, this stage of humanity is a real issue which is

accessible by all and is basically a kind of moral perfection without

which ethical act is not performed by man. Hence one may conclude

that both the thinkers have intertwined their theories of justice with a

specific theory of self or person.

This issue has become one of the main controversies between

some of the renowned advocates of communitarianism such as

Michael Sandal, Macintyre, and Tylor, or such liberals as Rawls.

In the viewpoint of communitarianists, this approach to self is

very defected and far from reality and basically it is unlikely and

impossible to consider self free from goals, values and objectives.

Hence the theories of justice are founded on a false base.

Regardless of verification of Rawls' and Kant's perception of self

or that of a person who wants to be the judge of the principles

of distributive justice, there is a serious question in this regard:

Is it necessary for any proposal for bases of social structure and

principles of distributive justice to be based on anthropology and

forward a specific theory about man's nature? This question is not of

course confined to the issue of social justice and comes to the fore in

the arena of political thought and political ideology. Is it necessary

for any political theory to be based on a specific approach to man

and specific definition of truth and man's nature?

There are three general answers to those three questions. The strict

or maximal outlook is that basically any theory of justice must be

based on a realistic and objective interpretation of human truth. By

objective interpretation of man we mean a perception of man which is

free from any ideological prejudgment that is value free and neutral.

Hence any mistake in realization and recognition of man's nature

and depiction of an ideological perception of man's reality, which is

under the influence of philosophical prejudgments and attitudes or is

value laden, would tarnish our theorization about social justice.

A more moderate approach maintains that although the provision

16

Dialogue

of a completely objective, value-free and neutral perception of

man and his personality is not a prerequisite to any theorization of

justice, practically and in reality the theories of justice are in one

way or another based on a specific perception of man's nature. These

anthropological theories cannot claim to be objective and their focus

has been the observation of its compatibility with the essence of

the theory of justice and other philosophical, epistemological

presuppositions. Therefore, one of the methods for evaluation and

criticism of a theory of justice is evaluation of the weak and strong

points underlying its anthropology.

The third answer belongs to such thinkers as Richard Rorty, who

through an anti-fundamentalist approach, reject the dependence

of a theory, either in the field of justice or in the arena of political

theorization, on philosophical foundations and a specific approach.

According to these thinkers, devising a political model or a

distributive justice system is an activity on the surface that may not

have any root in the deep levels and demonstrable philosophical

foundations. Hence, on the basis of what constitutes the values and

accepted norms of a culture and society, a desirable order can be

depicted without philosophizing about the roots and foundations of

those values and accepted norms.

As mentioned above, what was discussed above does not provide

answer to all the questions of social justice and therefore there are

a number of problems and key issues that have not been touched.

Nevertheless, attempts have been made in this article to as much as

possible clear the main challenges in the field of studies of justice,

particularly social justice.

Endnotes

1 Rawls John, A Theory of Justice, Oxford University Press, 2000 (first published in

1971).

2 Ibid., P. 3.

3 Rawls John, “Collected Papers,” edited by Samvel Freeman, Harvard University Press,

1999, P. 311.

4 Kymlica Will, “Contemporary Political Philosophy,” Clarendon Press, 1999, P. 3.

5 George V. and Wilding P., “Ideology and Social Policy,” Routledge, 1976.

Social Justice and Its Problems

17

6 Nazick Robert, Anarchy, “State and Utopia,” Blackwell, 1974, P. 30.

7 Original position, which refers to a hypothetical condition, plays a key in role in Rawls'

theory of justice. In his opinion there is no a priori definition of justice and it is not possible

to find the principles of justice through argument or intuition, rather we should perceive

a condition in which people through a just manner can reach an agreement on the content

of social justice and since the conditions of this choice and social justice are fair, what

is agreed upon as the basis of social cooperation is just. In order to make the method of

reaching an agreement fair the people who are living in the original condition should live in

ignorance and unawareness about their own abilities, objectives and social statuses. It will

be only in this case that what they accept as the basis of social cooperation and distribution

of resources will be the principles of justice. Definitely such a condition will be mere

hypothetical. Hence the term original position does not refer to a specific historical stage

contrary to some other theories of social contract which seems as if in a specific historical

situation before the formation of the society they reach an agreement about the major

political and economic issues of the society in a collective manner.

8 Rawls, A Theory of Justice, P. XV III.

9 Walzer Michael, “Spheres of Justice,” Basic Books, 1983, P. 5.

10 Rawls John, Political Liberalism, Columbia University Press, 1996, P. XLIV.

11 Ibid., P. XL, XLI.

12 Rorty Richard, “The Theory of Democracy to Philosophy,” Published in “Reading

Rorty,” Edited by Alan R. Malachowski, Oxford, Blackwell, 1990.

13 Rawls, Political Liberalism, PP. 113-114.

14 Kant Immanuel, “Foundations of Metaphysic of Morals, Translated by Lewis W. Beck,

New York, Bobbs-Merrill, 1976, P. 14.

15 Rawls, A Theory of Justice, P. 26.

We have several times discussed such topics as justice

as well as its abuse, violation of this value and also

the threats posed to peace due to injustice. These

problems have been discussed in various fields. One of these

topics is economic problems, which were of course discussed

under wider topics such as social, political and religious issues.

For instance, we have already talked about increasing mutual

interdependence in international relations along with various

human needs and interests and the dynamism stemming from

social, political, economic and technical developments as well

as the challenges created due to these developments. We have

asked ourselves: how far have these developments shaken our

traditional approaches and orientations or transformed them

into auxiliary factors for the establishment of the order of value

systems under their influence?

Political, Economic Factors Threatening

Peace and Justice in Contemporary World

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

“There is always everything available for every

one's needs, but nothing is sufficient for the greed

and cupidity of the people.”

G.H. Brundtland

H. Pischler*, H. Schnider**

* Faculty Member, Saint Gabreil

Religious Institute, Austria

** Faculty Member, Saint Gabreil

Religious Institute, Austria

Political, Economic Factors ...

19

One of the questions that come to the fore in the first instance is

related to the authenticity and significance of traditional Western

approaches to freedom and equality, while claiming to establish

justice in the field of economy. We know that these subjects

within the framework of the rapid process of globalization and

interdependence of interests are not easily moldable. Moreover

given the Western nature of the main essence of these values, either

from historical point of view or from their apparent frameworks,

these values can be mentioned as regional exceptions with natural

borders or in other words, with the necessary distinctions for any

absorption or homogeneity on international scale.

The question that comes to the fore here is: what is the main objective

of economic development, or how such problems as poverty and

wealth can be solved in today's world? Here the question of peace

and justice comes to the fore directly and indirectly and discussions

about these topics become profounder and profounder every day.

There has been enough display of figures for the demonstration of

this international gap. For instance, if we start from the undesirable

hypothesis that the industrialized countries will have zero percent

economic growth in the future, it will take several generations for

the more developed or richer Third World countries to fill their

economic gap with the industrialized states to some extent. This

duration will be longer for the poorer or poorest countries. But this

is not merely playing with the figures rather there are fundamental

problems and difficulties underlying them. Some of these problems

are evidently considered the mechanisms and laws of free market

economy (laissez-faire) and with all their inefficiencies, failures and

heavy social implications, according to John Paul II are called sinful

structures. In this perspective, today we should be pessimistic about

the incorrect perception of the promise of creation of “industrial

capital for all”, for this perception will yield nothing except a

nightmare!

A Glance at the Mission of Holy Scriptures

In the Old Testament, we come across an outlook which has made

us think through a perspective from top to bottom and forward some

economic ideas which are still fresh and noteworthy today. It puts

Dialogue

20

forth the undeniable dignity of man and his rights, as a primary

understanding of man of human rights. Moreover it recognizes man's

right to welfare, which is called right to progress today and man is

allowed to demand these rights in certain cases. Then from socialpolitical

perspective human beings are asked to establish a brotherly

and sisterly society free of poverty to prepare the grounds for a just

social system where rule of law is established. It will be a society in

which there is no poverty, for “your Lord Yahva will bless you in a

land granted to you for enjoyment and rulership… If you carefully

listen to the promise of your Lord Yahva, you will realize all these

commandments that I ordain you today to perform.” At the same

time since in the history there are always some conditions when

human beings are inflicted with poverty and inconvenience: “since

poor will not be eliminated from your earth, therefore, I command

you to stretch your hands to assist your needy and poor brother.”

Confronting the Sinful Structures

Here we face a claim as well as a commandment, which is still

strikingly valid today. Today, we face some challenges in the world

that require our initiative and action to sympathize with other human

beings. This duty has been entrusted upon us and in a single world

which belongs to all of us, we should create a collection of human

beings on the basis of solidarity and sympathy. This is a duty and

a commandment for the establishment of a situation in which our

behaviors and economic activities are directed towards insurance of

human dignity and welfare. In order to achieve this goal, a number

of unilateral, absolute classic principles must be reevaluated and

studied critically:

• Should the market and competition according to traditional

economic viewpoints play a determining role for organizing

economic structures, or is it possible to assign a secondary and

more relative role to them concomitant to specific conditions?

• Is it necessary to expect the economic structures, sectors

and complexes to have economic efficiency? On the basis of

solidarity and beyond the mechanisms of supply and demand

we can achieve efficiency and effectiveness. Economic gains

can be as much or even more sustainable than merely following

personal gains or following the rules of a competitive or

Political, Economic Factors ...

21

individualistic economy.

• The question that rises here is: Is it possible to take another

necessary and significant step on the side of precise observation

of the existing economic principles and those of individualistic

competition, that is, to establish a just and institutionalized

framework which is accompanied with efficiency and success to

be able to accept the necessities of laissez-faire and competitive

conditions to the maximum level even with the acceptance of

the possibility of their defeat at international level and not only

make these conditions tolerable, but apply this kind of economic

activity in a higher level in social-political relations in a more

affective and useful manner? Although here we can discuss this

issue very briefly, we must allude to the Catholic humanitarian

teachings and the principles of their formation. As we know,

there are major differences between these teachings and the

dominating and classic economic principles, particularly they

attach special significance to

“individual” or “self” and aim

to preserve human dignity

in the economic process.

Sympathy and assistance

accompanied with emphasis

on the significance of public

welfare are very prominent in this project, particularly in recent

years and given the existing challenges in the Third World, the

idea of elimination of poverty has been added to it. In these

teachings market and competition have never had a central role,

rather they are at the service of higher goals. Of course it does

not mean radical rejection of the liberal economic system or its

unilateral blame, but we mainly aim1 to shift the hierarchy of

objectives and avoid absolute, unilateral judgments.

A Comparative Study of Humanitarian Teachings

One can strongly state that Islam and Christianity in their social and

humanitarian teachings share similar viewpoints in certain sectors.

For instance, the teachings of the Holy Book on the establishment

of a just social system and its necessary principles, including the

observation of the principle of solidarity and campaign against

Economic interests underlie many of these

wars overtly and covertly. The history books

are replete with examples of these events

Dialogue

22

poverty are among the common principles. Another common feature

is that none of these religions claim to have defined a theory on the

basis of rigid presuppositions.2 Moreover, there are some common

and delicate distinctive points between the Islamic and Christian

principles in the field of economic problems.3

What follows is an allusion to some of these commonalities:

• Economic-material organization of life and human livelihood

is not the ultimate goal rather it is a kind of preparation for

achieving higher goals.

• Accumulation of wealth and properties, greed, misery, and

power-mongering stem from bad attributes and abuse of

power is not compatible with the belief in the sublime Quranic

values.

• Ownership and accumulation of wealth are legitimate and

lawful only when they are at the service of the public and are

usefully in circulation.

• Accumulation of money for the sake of money, that is,

speculation without useful economic and productive yield as

well as capital and its interests are not ethically legitimate.

• The income earned through work, contrary to John Locke's

viewpoint, who has an individualist approach based on the

natural law, does not necessarily justify the ownership, rather

it should be accompanied with sympathy and observation of

the rights of the needy and poor for earning income. In social

approach of Christianity we come across the principle that

private property cannot be accepted as an absolute value and its

acquisition must be accompanied with social responsibility.

• Hedonism and consumerism should be totally forgone in the

interest of spiritual values.

• Unrealistic, undignified economic activities and deals and

inappropriate activities such as smuggling, drug trafficking,

alcohol transaction, exploitative interests, money counterfeiting,

misuse of monopolistic and exclusive concessions, extortion,

unilateral imposition of economic power, etc. are condemned,

for they are contrary to the Quranic principles and its economic

instructions.

• Finally, in the analysis of various interests, public interests are

Political, Economic Factors ...

23

prior to the individual interests, which are based on the principle

of priority of collective rights to the individual rights. Evidently,

regardless of numerous commonalities existing between Islam

and Christianity in this regard, there are some differences and

distinctions between the two, which need to be discussed in its

proper place.

Chapter II

Heinrich Schneider

In the present article we try to discuss politics and economics, but we

are not expected to talk about economic and political developments.

Also our topic is not the relationships between economic and

political forces and currents - neither in general nor with regard

to a specific country. Our objective is to answer to the following

question: What are the relationship between politics and religion and

their implications for man's destiny in the light of the threats posed

to peace and justice in today's world?

Here we would like to allude to some points, which are evident but

at the same time their reminder is indispensable.

1 - Peace and justice are not evident issues. The world is not as the

human beings, particularly those with good intention, desire to be; it

is neither the way the divine providence ordains. Peace and justice

do not rule over the world. This has been a trend throughout the

history. Exploitation and violation of rights is and has always been

there. Human beings individually and collectively threaten and bully

each other and commit violence against others. Civil and external

wars as well as imperialistic domination are there. We have also

witnessed holy wars and crusades, accompanied with persecution

of dissidents and infidels. Wars have been waged and legitimized

in the name of following of truth, propagation of religion, spread of

ideology, and cultural superiority. Economic interests underlie many

of these wars overtly and covertly. The history books are replete with

examples of these events.

2 - Peace and justice are interconnected in a specific manner.

The General Assembly of the Second Vatican Council alludes

Dialogue

24

to a statement attributed to Prophet Ashia: “… and the result of

peace will be assurance…” and we say: “peace and tranquility will

permeate a world where justice prevails.”

This statement will convince us to accept the fact that justice is

a prerequisite to peace, but in the modern age we come across

another statement as well: “Real justice is realized due to the effort

of peaceful figures who sow the seeds of peace and reconciliation.”

[6 What is inferred from this statement is that contrary to what

mentioned above, peace is a condition to achieve justice; in other

words, peace and tranquility are necessary for the spread of justice.

Can we see a dialectical relationship between these two objectives?

If this relationship is there, it is not a simple one.

Some thinkers argue that a peace that cannot establish a just and

sustainable order does not create responsibility either. We should

not accept injustice, rather we should fight it. But one who fights,

disturbs the existing peace and status quo and according to some

people, such a person disturbs peace.

We may look at this issue from another angle. Incidentally, the same

Pope, that is, Pious XV, who had chosen the remark of Prophet Ashia

as his election slogan, during the Cold War between the East and

West maintained that the acceptance of injustice may be one of our

duties and this is when our attempts for restoration of peace through

violence may cause more damages.

The question that comes to the fore is: When has the maintenance of

peace a priority, and when does campaign for peace has? We cannot

give eternal general answers to these questions. We need insight

and intelligence to give these answers and these are the virtues

considered as prerequisites to politics by my Church of following.

3 - When human insight comes to the fore, we can only be hopeful

of success, but we can not be definitely sure about the path we have

chosen, for man's thought and action are always incomplete and

accompanied with mistakes. We can be and are responsible to be

Political, Economic Factors ...

25

at the service of peace and justice; we should bear in mind that our

success in this way is incomplete and accompanied with incapability.

What we finally achieve will be the reflection of a picture of justice

and peace and we should confess that our perceptions are unilateral

and hence more than anything else we need humbleness and

modesty.

We want to have a world full of peace and justice and naturally

consider the existing situation worrysome. This concern also comes

forth when our specific perceptions of the world and our aspirations

for a world full of justice and peace do not tally with the existing

realities. We have forwarded our opinion about such subjects a

number of times and have talked about the principles and rules more

than about the objectives and specific threats.

I have decided to talk about the factors threatening peace and

freedom and I have at least two

justified reasons for this:

1 - If we want to move only at the

level of principles and norms that

have permanent credit and do not

want to reach a clear result for our

today's deeds and behavior, our

discussions will be limited, devoid of any significance and practical

outcome. But in order to reach practical results, we should expose

the identified principles and rules to practical problems. That is, we

have to confront the phenomena, forces and dangers that threat the

realization of just peace and a peaceful justice.

2 - The second reason is that particularly during the past few months

certain factors have worried human beings. Since September 11,

many people in various parts of the word fear terrorism which

is becoming more dangerous and nastier everyday. But there are

other concerns as well, that is, why the world system is as such that

prepares the grounds for terrorist operations and other moves? Do

not these terrorist acts of the September 11 show that not only the

spiritual condition of human beings, but also the economic, political

systems of the world to a great extent suffer from certain problems?

We should not accept injustice, rather

we should fight it. But one who fights,

disturbs the existing peace and status quo

and according to some people, such a person

disturbs peace

Dialogue

26

Is there “state-sponsored terrorism?”

In today's world, everything is interdependent. Are there some

worrying mysterious relations between politics and economy?

Politics in the Service of Global Economy or Subversion of

Relations between Ends and Means?

According to the dominant idea, one of the major concerns in today's

world is dwindling of relationships between economy and politics

that have undergone a qualitative change.

What we call the globalization of economy today is first and foremost

the liberation of the forces of open market from the limiting political

rules and regulations which is called deregulation. 7] Till date the

governments would control income and profit on certain routes and

also would boycott or prohibit some destructive unjust activities.

Deregulation concomitant with the kind of goods or services and

also congruence with the geographical conditions will have various

effects. Few years ago it was concluded that only 30 percent of the

world population have integrated in the world economy, while the

figure for the developing countries stood at 10 percent only.

One of the results of deregulation is the enhancement of the

direct investment of the foreign production, services and financial

companies and the growth of the multinational companies. These

companies control two-thirds of the total volume of international

trade; and at least one-third of the international trade is transacted

between various branches and subsidiaries of these companies in

the base country. In this intra-company relationship too there is a

competition for more profit and the parent companies can force their

subsidiaries to compete with each other in order to reduce the prices.

Globalization is more vigorous in the field of financial markets

compared to other public sectors and commercial markets.

International financial transactions during the past few years have

had an explosive speed and nothing has become as global as the

financial and foreign exchange transactions. Only 12 percent of the

daily foreign exchange transactions are related to the trade of goods

Political, Economic Factors ...

27

and long-term capital transactions and investments. Every day new

economic and financial agencies surface whose main objective is

enhancement of their profit. For instance, the personal insurance

funds and the private companies for retirement insurance, particularly

in the United States, are among such funds. This approach, based

on the profitability of shares, has forced the companies that need

capital to unprecedentedly increase their profit and they are moving

towards the points where there is more economic facilities. This

trend has forced the governments to mobilize all the capabilities

in order to improve these facilities in their countries, for otherwise,

such companies will transfer their offices to other countries and this

in turn will reduce employment and the government's revenues from

income tax.

This trend, which is called competition for economic place and

position, has also changed the political conditions. The manager of

a credible bank termed the financial markets as the fifth branch of

government, on the side of the legislature, executive, judiciary and

media in a political system. The underlying reason is that this branch

can control the performance of other branches.

Politics is increasingly becoming a reaction to the developments

and moves of the economic market, while political force should in

principle move towards responsible organization of the foundation

of common life of human beings on the basis of philanthropy

and justice. The governments depend on the market changes and

developments, particularly when they are among the global powers,

without being able to influence them.

Democracy is no more what its founders tried in years to acquire.

That was a struggle for the establishment of a political system in

which the rulers on behalf of the people tried to materialize collective

welfare, justice and people's demands. Today, the rulers, instead of

those duties should direct their focus on the market changes and

developments, for attention to what is dictated by the market is more

important than the nation's will. In fact in case of the flight of the

companies, the economy will be weakened and this will endanger

the public welfare.

Dialogue

28

A few years ago the people thought that the weaker countries had

better rid themselves of the clutches of international market, which

was dominated by the stronger countries, in order to be able to stand

on their legs and grow. But this disengagement strategy failed before

the international progress.

Of course it is not only politics that undergoes changes, but it

applies to the economic life as well. Great companies allocate to

themselves the most significant grounds for economic performance

and decision-making. These grounds include the fulfillment of

financial requirements, research and development, setting the sale

and marketing strategies, production control through feasibility

studies and employing specialized marketing agencies, etc. The

production of material goods as well as the low-value sectors of

information technology are transformed to lower cost places. The

companies are not anymore organizations composed of individuals,

who are committed to each other even for life for common economic

interests through contract; nor do they enjoy a fabric based on

strong, mutual relations, kept in equilibrium through contract. This

fabric, for instance, in the past was composed of the managers, stuff,

shareholders, trade partners and the clients. Today the companies

are an accumulated wealth belonging to the shareholders, which is

controlled by the holders or their agencies. They can buy majority of

shares, hire and fire the managers, partition the profitable production

centers and sell the rest or change them into bonds and fire the staff,

for the news of lay-off of the staff increases the values of the shares.

Here the relations between means and ends are conversed. In the

beginning the economic activities had to fulfill the people's needs

to goods. It was so for thousands of years and production and

distribution applied to the goods that were necessary for man's life

and his survival. It was the modern economy of the free market and

industrialization that transformed the previous situation. Since then

a system has been formed that according to Joseph Schumpeter

production has been turned into a “marginal phenomenon for

enhancement of profit”. The growth of production and more

importantly its accruing profit are among the highest objectives

of economic performance and politics has adjusted itself to it.

Political, Economic Factors ...

29

But it does not mean that the enhancement of public welfare has

grown too, for here we face a situation, which is “growth without

employment”.

But given that the norms of a completely industrial society influences

the dominant approaches and practices and even penetrates them, it

can be said that the spread of the spirit of shareholding in the economic

life will leave an impact on the orientation and determination of

structures and behaviors of other sectors as well. For instance, the

church asks the consultants of the firms to assess their economic

and financial conditions and show if their performance enjoys the

effectiveness and efficacy of the norms applied to the managers of

the firms. Today, in order to improve their performance, churches are

following such reformation projects. The universities too are inclined

towards this trend and try to regulate their practices and performance

in accordance with the needs of the market and effectiveness based

on economic management.

A man, who is a product of a society influenced by the laissez-faire

economy, will acquire a mentality, values, and behavior that is

not compatible with other traditional European patterns and rules.

Particularly the Christian values will lose their significance in such

a society.

Negative Consequences of Global Economy in Contemporary West

The developments in the modern Western world have brought about

some problems with them. In viewpoint of Christianity, particularly

in the viewpoint of Pope John Paul II these developments are a sign

of incorrect, unprincipled

Economism.

Economism comes to the forth where in the economic system the

positions of ends and means and human welfare and economic

mechanisms are changed and there is no rule of priority of man

over things. Finally, bottlenecks and economic needs become

independent, becoming the main problem and difficulty. This is

exactly opposite to the principles in which economic relationship

and practices should be in the service of human beings. The market

Dialogue

30

is not allowed to be the only source for directing all aspects of life

and needs public control.

Therefore, the performances of economic life should not be separated

from political control which ensures social welfare; it should neither

dominate other sectors of social life. Moreover, the transactions and

mutual interactions of free market without any doubt need a political

order for their regular, disciplined performance to prevent abuses

of the legal system and thus provide the owners of the firms with

a framework and suitable pattern for regulation of relations and

insurance of the contracts. The decision about the preparation of

such a system cannot be left to the economy. On the other hand, the

legal system cannot function without the support of the economic

forces either. Moreover, the legal system itself must be based on the

dignity and honesty. This is why since sometimes back the economic

ethic has become the subject of new debates.

What we have said about the political system based on democracy

and the rule of law applies to the economic system as well, that is,

these systems depend on certain conditions and frameworks which

cannot create them with their own tools and facilities. The first

modern economist, that is, Adam Schmidt, was very well aware of

this fact. He still used to see the interaction of supply and demand

within the framework of the philosophy of ethic. Also Pope John

Pole II mentions: Economic abnormalities and misguidance become

active when the social-cultural system has been diverted from

the path… for, economic systems have always been somehow an

expression of a specific cultural approach to the entire society.

The result is clear: Economy, particularly the economy of the

current world, needs a framework of an integrated, firm political

system which safeguards the public order. This system must be able

to exercise the necessary political guidance and most importantly

preserve the legal order of the society. Just like politics which is

responsible for the establishment of legal system, economy too

requires an economic ethic - an ethic stemming from within whose

executive guarantee is not merely fear of punishment.

Political, Economic Factors ...

31

Paradox of Adjustment of Global Economy with Requirements

of Justice and Peace

The question that comes to fore is: where do the political issues

related to the above stances lie? The new economic trans-border

relations and activities that are called globalization today exert

political pressures on the governments. If they decide to segregate

themselves from these economic activities by detaching themselves

from the global economic system, as mentioned earlier, this will land

them in a deadlock. Today the governments cannot resist these global

activities and hold aloof from the competition for economic status

and position, for such a policy will cause the flight of the capital,

reduction in the rate of employment and finally weakening of the

national economy and ultimately the oppressed forces will finally

liberate themselves from the political control. If this is so and there is

no other way for the settlement of these problems, it is necessary for

the countries of the world to get together to envisage a trans-border,

common “arrangement and

political control” - as a framework

for the activities of trans-border

forces of free market. As the

governments at national level are

responsible for the preservation of

public welfare and law and order

and provide the actors of the free market with legal codes to conducts

their activities and also at the same time stop some of the activities

and even if necessary intervene in the process of economic activities,

so the application of the same methods must be also possible at the

world level. Given the fact that trans-border, mutual relations have

multiple and complicated consequences, it is necessary to take some

measures within the trans-border, global frameworks to contain and

conduct the free market activities. Here we should pay attention to

the international welfare, which entails establishment of justice at

a vast level and prevention of conditions and relations that threaten

peace at international level.

We are living in an era that such complicated trans-border relations

as global economic relations and Internet international network

intertwine the societies and create mutual interdependence,

Democracy is no more what its founders tried

in years to acquire. That was a struggle for the

establishment of a political system in which the

rulers on behalf of the people tried to materialize

collective welfare, justice and people's demands

Dialogue

32

intensifying obedience to their own systems and political rules of

their governments. This is so serious that it is not any more possible

to take action to prevent the probable threats against the welfare and

peace of the citizens at national level or within the framework of a

specific country. What is necessary is the exploration of new ways to

make the necessary forecasts and fulfill the needs of the international

society beyond the borders.

From the European classic viewpoint, particularly that of Christianity

and specifically that of Catholicism, and according to the normative

sociopolitical theories, the formation of a trans-border government

is felt whose duty is acceptance of responsibility to maintain peace,

tranquility and public welfare at world level. Of course it should

enjoy the required power to discharge its duty.

The similarity between a national political organization which is

a palpable reality and an international political arrangement which

doest not exist yet, would remind us of the idea of single international

government. But it should be mentioned that at present this idea does

not have any chance for materialization and basically the question

that comes to the fore is: is such an idea pursuable at all?

Here we have been caught at the horn of a dilemma: on the one

hand we need guidance and control of the international markets

and adjustment of the process of international economy with the

requirements of justice and maintenance of peace and on the other

this need has not been fulfilled, for we lack a system for the creation

and preservation of such an accountable, guiding source.

One of the impacts of this problem which is probably a step towards

its settlement is that recently a new concept has been coined,

that is, global governance. The word governance here means the

ability to settle social problems and first and foremost it means

maintenance of peace and establishment of justice. What is new

is that here there is not any talk of a system of government and it

does not mean a national government on global scale or a single

global government. The objective of this project is to get the things

done through the cooperation of networks and regimes that are not

Political, Economic Factors ...

33

national governments. The duty of these agencies is to conduct and

control various transnational, governmental, global and international

organizations in a manner that they move towards the settlement of

the problems and more than ever maintain public welfare. Of course

this plan will become practicable only when the interests of the

actors are insured better within this framework.

Here we come across the governance without government and

it is a situation in which the principle of exercise of governance

is summed up in preservation and protection of a public system

without confining the forces active in the global market to a superior,

sovereign government. The preservation of this system can be

delegated to a power that is dominant in the world. But it is unlikely

that this power would function as a powerful but merciful force,

serve the public interests and forego its trifle interests. Of course the

dominating powers very quickly acquire the approach that defines

their own interests as the public interest.

The nations and governments are rarely inclined to accept the

influence of a dominant superpower. On the other hand, there is little

hope that our problems and difficulties will be solved by the help of a

coordinating, but not governing system, that is, governance without

government. One of the reasons for this pessimism is that during

the past few decades several international conferences have been

held by the United Nations whose outcome could be helpful for the

public welfare. These conferences put such topics as human rights,

protection of environment, population control and campaign against

poverty on the top of their agenda. Although the outcomes contained

many promises and some demands from the member states, the

approved plans were not practically materialized completely. One of

the clear examples of the failure of these conventions is the Tokyo

Document that aimed to create a global policy for the protection of

environment.

Can the instructive structures and models of governance replace

those of a government? In other words: If the governments are

so weak that they cannot overcome the pressures of the citizens

particularly their economic pressures, and if the international

Dialogue

34

conferences cannot offer a suitable political solution and guarantee

their implementation, what is the solution?

The Evolution of Regional Systems as a Guarantee for Peace and

Justice

We have an interesting political experience stemming from the

economic interdependence, that is, the European Union. Contrary

to the prejudgments made in this regard, the European Union

principally followed a political objective, that is, putting an end to

the centuries-old animosities and achieving a peaceful coexistence

through solidarity among all European nations and governments. But

since in the post-World War era and after the collapse of autocratic

systems in Germany and Italy, the required readiness for the creation

of a stable political alliance among the belligerent countries did not

exist, the founders of the European Union felt that it was appropriate

to employ economic ties in the service of political ends. During

those days there was not still any trace of a clear feeling of solidarity

and hence in the first place its economic foundations had to be laid.

During those days economic ties were used for integration and

merger of various interests in a manner to convert hostilities and

confrontations to convergence and association. Shortly after this

decision, the governments decided to consolidate this integration

with deregulation policies. Hence, the removal of limitations and

obstacles in the way of transaction of goods, services, capital and

workforce in fact opened the way for further cooperation. With

the advent of the openness of the European domestic markets, the

grounds were more and more prepared for the establishment of a

more united European Common Market.

The success of the European Common Market was considerable,

but it was not yet quite evident that the economic unity would be

a prelude to political unity and solidarity. First of all, deregulation

does not spontaneously create centripetal forces and does not cause

trans-border solidarity; on the contrary, it can in certain cases

move the opposite direction. Moreover, the European economic

unity was simultaneous with and pulled by another development,

that is, globalization. Given this global stance, there is not any

doubt that the domestic open policy in Europe still acts in the

Political, Economic Factors ...

35

direction of creation of a special awareness peculiar to Europe as

belongingness to a common territory. But, incidentally it is under

the very circumstances that revision of the performance of European

Union has been put on the agenda of fundamental discussions and

debates. These debates focus on the subject that the main condition

and inalienable condition for the preservation and evolution of

the model of European Common Market is complete unity of all

governments and nations of Europe and the implementation of this

plan will revive the priority of political sector over the market forces.

This is because every European county is individually weak for the

accomplishment of this task. Here the idea that comes to the fore is

that the implementation of an effective policy for the establishment

of social justice and confrontation with the moves stemming from

the process of globalization will be possible only through a single

common European policy which itself requires the establishment of

a complete political unity.

The European Union has become an incentive and a model for the

unity of other countries of other regions of the world. The question

that come to the fore here is: how far could such attempts be helpful

for achieving a global political structure in order to maintain peace

and establish justice? The answer is: currently it is not possible to leap

towards the creation of a global guiding system whose strong form is

a global government and whose weak form is global governance. In

fact, the evolution of regional systems can relatively guarantee the

maintenance of peace and establishment of justice.

There are a few reasons supporting this presupposition:

First: The common cooperative unions for preservation of peace

and establishment of justice are more acceptable at the world level

compared to the systems based on a single dominating power.

Second: We should take another point very seriously, that is, the

systems maintaining peace and safeguarding justice particularly the

systems creating an effective order for the control of trans-border

economic activities cannot be useful without effective systems for

political decision-making. They also need a suitable legal system in

order to discharge their duties. But, all economic systems, whether

Dialogue

36

at national, regional or global levels, on the one hand and the legal

system creating justice and peace on the other cannot enter the

practical scene without an appropriate cultural base. What we need

is an ethical economy and accountable politics. The economic and

political systems need interaction with the cultural system and must

be based on the preparedness of all societies and their citizens for

sympathy and solidarity. But we are still far away from this situation

at international level. The persuasion of a single global culture in

today's interdependent world will quickly lead to globalization of

the Western culture, particularly the American style. The end result

will be what a few years ago Francis Fukuyama called the End of

History. What will be awaiting us will be the conquest of other

cultures by the calculating rationality and utilitarian economy of the

free market accompanied with political domination. But the world is

not ready to unequivocally accept such a plan and its success too will

not be approved of by us.

Hence the pluralism and specifications of various arenas of cultures

and civilizations should not be considered a decline. Rather, it is a

condition for the establishment of a trans-border political arrangement

for the establishment of peace and justice and this is possible only

if this arrangement is approved by all the beneficiary societies. Our

today's world should wrestle with the outcomes of globalization.

Therefore, it is better to seek unity in diversity, for any totality

should rest on the shoulders of its components and be arranged with

their help. The constructive way of progress in a multicultural world

lies in the dismissal of universalization of a culture, acceptance of

the differences, and concentration on commonalities. This proposal

has not been put forth by any other figure than Samuel Huntington

himself. If the cultures, civilizations, and trans-border regional

systems wants to achieve peace and justice, they should not confine

themselves to their own domestic issues. They should not either

allow the cultural and regional conflicts to come forth nor should

they array against others just like uncompromising enemies.

Achieving mutual cultural understanding becomes increasing

important every day and dialogue among religions in this regard

plays a key role, for religion is the spirit of culture. Of course we

Political, Economic Factors ...

37

cannot ensure all the successes beforehand; perhaps in the future we

will witness a spiritless, soulless culture.

Hence we would maintain that pessimism is as much allowed

as optimism. According to Denis de Rougemont optimism and

pessimism are answers to the following question: What will happen

ultimately? However, only posing of this question without attention

to our expectations for the best or worst indicates that the questioner

has already shred the responsibility for what will come. One who

looks for accepting the responsibility, should not ask: “What will

happen?”, rather, he should

Endnotes

1 See: Rashad, Ali Akbar, The Values, Rights and Duties.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

The Meaning of Justice Justice like beauty is a single truth that permeates in all its

diverse and widespread examples and instances - despite their

diversity and differences.2 I believe that justice should be

defined in terms of the two famous phrases that has been defined

with since the time of Aristotle3, that is, putting everything in its

proper position and granting the right of very entitled person to

him4. The first phrase explains the truth of justice regarding being

(worldview) and the second phrase explains the materialization of

justice regarding the ought tos and perhaps (commandments and

ethic).

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

“[God] established equity in creation and

realized justice in His commandments

[religion] for mankind.”1

Imam Ali (AS)

* FACULTY MEMBER, DEPARTMENT OF

PHILOSOPHY INSTITUTE OF ISLAMIC

CULTURE AND THOUGHT

Ali Akbar Rashad*

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

39

There is complete relationship between analysis of justice regarding

being and evolution and explanation of justice regarding the ought

tos and legislation, for putting everything and everybody in their

proper positions is granting their rights to them and also granting the

right of every entitled person to him is putting the entitled person

in his deserving position. These two acts will inevitably lead to

“avoidance of going to the extremes and establishment of justice”

and this is the very truth which permeates all examples and instances

of justice. Imam Ali (AS) too maintains that the function of justice

is implementation of the said two points, he says: “Justice places the

things on their proper places.”5

Due to its comprehensiveness and universality, justice can be

divided and classified into various kinds and grades; justice in

terms of “sphere of application”, “kind of application”, absolute or

subject”, or, on the basis of other criteria and standards, justice can be

divided into various kinds and grades; justice in terms of its general

meaning, in terms of the sphere of evolution (arena of creation and

deliberation of life and existence), and justice in terms of the realm

of legislation (arena of human relations). Also legislative justice is

divided into legal justice, political justice, economic justice, etc.

Status of Justice

In Islamic thought justice is the most original evolutionary/

legislative principle and the most widespread divine/human value,

for in the sphere of ontology and Islamic worldview, it dominates the

being and life just like structure and soul. The holy Prophet (PBUH)

of Islam has been quoted as saying: “The heavens and earth stand on

pillars of justice”.6 Imam Ali (AS) has been quoted as saying: “Justice

is a foundation on which the entire universe rests”.7 In the arena of

religious commandments and ordainments and in the field of ethic

and values, justice is considered a basis and a criterion. Imam Ali

(AS) has defined this truth as such: “Verily monotheism and justice

are the foundations of religion”.8 Also the Imam has said: “Indeed,

justice is a scale created by Allah who established it for the creatures

and installed it for establishment of right among the people; hence

do not oppose this scale and do not violate His sovereign rule.”9

Justice enjoys an expressive and outstanding status compared to

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40

any other sublime, sacred categories and values, such as the truth,

religions, monotheism, prophethood, Resurrection, faith, virtue,

reason, perfection, right, law, order, security, holy war, peace,

freedom, equality, civility, ethic, felicity, etc.

Explanation and elaboration of the relationship between justice and

other sublime values and categories requires another opportunity.

However, in order to demonstrate the comprehensiveness and

universality of justice and its status and magnificence, here a cursory

look is cast on the relationship between justice and some other

important concepts.10 (Attempts will be made to rely on Quranic

verses and traditions in each of these arguments).

1 - Justice and Truth

Justice is not a hypothetical issue; it is a real element which is

materialized in outside world and universe. In the Islamic thought,

next to the truth of the existence of God, there is not any other

truth as comprehensive and universal as justice. The holy Quran

juxtaposes the existence of God, His justice, and the justness of

universal system when emphasizing on these categories: “Allah

bears witness that there is no god by He. And [so do] the angels and

those possessed of knowledge, maintaining his creation with justice;

there is no god but He, the Mighty, the Wise.”11 It can be inferred

from this verse that in the similar way that Godly-orientation and

monotheistic nature of the universe and life is a great truth, it is also a

great truth that the creation and the universe are just-based and just.

2 - Justice and the Origin

God is just and has not ordained expect just for the creatures: “…and

Allah does not desire any injustice to the creatures.”12 Also another

Quranic verse states: “Surely Allah does not do injustice to the

weight of an atom, and if it is a good deed He multiplies it and gives

from Himself a great reward.”13

3 - Justice and Right

Inequity and falsehood occur due to diversion from the moderation

or just limits and falling into the whirlpool of going to the extremes.

Imam Ali (AS) terms the left and the right (diversion from

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

41

moderation or just limits) misguidance and considers treading the

moderate and just path as the righteous path: “Surely Allah does not

do any injustice to men, but men are unjust to themselves.”14

4 - Justice and Universe

Justice permeates through the body of the universe just like soul and

also permeates through the life and being just like a comprehensive,

universal structure and system. No point or grade of existence and

no phenomenon and creature in the world is devoid of the element

of justice. God has established the world on the pillars of justice and

firmness of the universe depends on justice. “Justice is a foundation

on which the entire universe rests”.15

5 - Justice and Religion

Religion “is a report of the evolutionary and legislative providence of

God.”16 Since evolution - which is the manifestation of the practical

Divine Will - is just, legislation

too, which is an indication of the

scientific providence of God, is

just and just-oriented. As justice

is the pillar and consolidator

of evolution, it is the basis of

legislation as well.17 Religion

is divided into two parts: statements and doctrines. Some parts of

religion (that is, the beliefs) consist of realistic statements which

inform us of the truths and beings. Therefore this part of the religion

is description of manifestation of divine justice in evolution; and the

other part of the religion is an invitation and instruction to man to

observe justice (ethic and manners) and act on the basis of justice

(action and commandments). Hence, a major chunk of the religion

consists of the doctrines that encourage man to observe justice

within himself (divine ethic) and establish justice outside his being

(social commandments). Belief in monotheism, which is the essence

of religion, is justice and infidelity is a big inequity.18

6 - Justice and Prophethood

The divine prophets were the justest human beings, to the extent that

they enjoyed the blessing of infallibility - which is the highest degree

Justice like beauty is a single truth that

permeates in all its diverse and widespread

examples and instances - despite their

diversity and differences

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42

of understanding the right and believing in the right (scientific justice),

following the righteousness and turning back to falsehood (practical

justice). They never declined justice and moderation or the rightful

and truthful criteria in the realm of insight, behavior and action. Sent

by God, the prophets invited the entire mankind to justice19 and they

themselves too endeavored throughout their lives to establish justice

and most of them finally lost their lives for the sake of justice.

7 - Justice and Resurrection

The raison d'etre of Resurrection is establishment of justice. The

Day of Judgment is a scene of manifestation of divine mercy as well

as that of the materialization of ultimate justice. According to His

mercy and justice, God on the Day of Judgment will reward those

who had good deeds and were just and will also punish those who

were oppressors and committed bad deeds.20

8 - Justice and Appointment of Prophets

The objective of the appointment of prophets and revelation of

scriptures is establishment of justice in human societies. The holy

Quran states: “Certainly We sent Our apostles with clear arguments,

and sent down with them the Book and the balance that men may

conduct themselves with equity; and We have made the iron,

wherein is great violence and advantages to men, and that Allah may

know who helps Him and His apostles in the secret; surely Allah is

Strong, Mighty.”21

9 - Justice and Expectation

Justice is the ultimate ideal of man and the ideal society is a just

one.22 The international society will achieve perfection and felicity

with the materialization of expectation (the elimination of inequity

across the world and permeation of justice in it). The establishment

of universal justice is the definite destiny of the world. If inequity

permeates through the entire world, and only one day is left to the

end of this world, God will prolong that day so that a man will

emerge from the heavens to fill the world with equity and justice.23

10 - Justice and Religious Commandments

Justice is among the causes of commandments and the source and

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

43

objective of divine commandments is realization of justice24; hence,

an unjust law or decree is not a religious one and wherever there is

injustice, there is as much distance between the society and religion25.

Wherever and whenever there is realization of justice (although not in

the name of religion), in fact some part of religion has been realized.

If there is relative justice in a society, absolute infidelity evaporates

and when absolute justice is established, infidelity too goes away26,

for the objective of religion is establishment of justice and justice is

at the top of faith, encompassing good and benevolence.27

11 - Justice and Law

The objective of law is establishment of justice. Also law is followed

and is considered desirable because it guarantees the establishment of

justice. Therefore, justice is the source, the criterion and the objective

of law. Some thinkers define justice as “acting in accordance with

the law”28.

12 - Justice and Rights

There is also a strong relationship between rights and justice.

Enjoying justice is a prime right of the people. Realization of justice

is possible only through restoration and realization of people's rights

and realization of their rights is possible only in the light of just rules

and in a just society.29

13 - Justice and Security

Order and security can be established only through justice and the

society and state cannot continue to exist except on the basis of

justice.30 The law and order that cannot not protect justice provide a

tranquility, which smells of death on the one hand and has a doomsday

on the other and sooner or later there will be revolution against

injustice in a cemeterial society. True, security is the one in which all

strata of the society are able to realize their rights. The kind of security

that only protects the rights of the power-wielders and is the guard of

the wealth of the rich and on the other limits and threatens the dignity

and freedom of the destitute and poor is not indeed security.31

14 - Justice and Freedom

A number of sublime values such as religion, law and others' freedom

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44

may put some limitations on the freedom. Justice too is a limiter of

freedom. No one is allowed to trample upon justice in the name of

freedom. Freedom is among the greatest rights of human beings;

hence justice requires the protection of the rights of all individuals,

including their freedom.32

15 - Justice and Equality

There is a clear relationship between justice and equality to the extent

that some thinkers maintain that justice means absolute equality

among human beings. Although the word justice in Arabic (adl)

literarily is related to equality and equity33, such an interpretation of

justice is not a precise interpretation, for equalization of the different

is a capital inequity. Of course, observation of the equality of the

equal individuals and strata is justice itself - there is no problem to

link justice to equality in this sense.

16 - Justice and Holy War (Jihad)

Justice is the ultimate objective of jihad. In Islamic viewpoint, holy

war for the elimination of inequity and humanitarian interventions

for protection of the rights of the oppressed are among the duties of

the believers.34

17 - Justice and Ethic

The oldest theory of philosophy of ethic considers moderation

in attributes a virtue and maintains that the objective of ethic is

acquisition of inner justice.35

18 - Justice and Peace

The connection between peace and justice is unbreakable. Inequity

has always been a source of war and a threat to peace. Perpetual,

comprehensive peace is not possible to establish except through

justice. Hence, the holy Quran emphasizes that peace and compromise

between adversaries should be based on justice and equity.36

19 - Justice and Felicity

The individual and social felicity is not possible to achieve except

through the realization of subjective (personal/inner) justice in all

individuals and commitment to objective (social-political) justice.

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

45

Justice and establishment of justice are the signs of civility and

the realization of justice prepares the grounds for the emergence

and blossoming of the civilizations, while inequity and oppression

are the signs of savagery which cause the decline and fall of the

civilizations.37

20 - Justice and Reason

The interdependence of justice and reason is so clear that it does

not require to be dwelt upon. The realization of good justice, its

examples, and judgment of its decline is possible with the help of

reason. Therefore, in Islam the two schools of thought of Mu'tazilite

and Shiism are called both rational and just.

Obstacles to Justice

In this short article, attempts have been made to only allude to

some obstacles and impediments of legislative justice. By obstacles

and impediments of justice we mean the problems and factors

that somehow function as a deterrent to realization of justice and

practically deprive the citizens (nationally or internationally) of this

divine blessing. Most of the obstacles and implements of justice stem

from the acts and thoughts of human beings (kings and citizens).

“Surely Allah does not do any injustice to men, but men are unjust

to themselves.”38

Some of the obstacles and impediments of justice are enumerated

below.

1 - Ignorance of the rulers or administrators of the concept of

justice or inequity. Ignorance of the nature of justice always causes

a confusion in the examples of inequity and justice to the extent that

some times inequity takes the place of justice and vice versa; and the

just person is projected as an oppressor and vice versa!39 Imam Ali

(AS), states: “Many people who look just are indeed oppressors.”40

Man's conscience has not still recovered from injuries inflicted on it

due to wrong interpretations of Karl Marx of justice and his followers.

Two truth-burning blunders took place in Marxism regarding justice:

first, the status of justice was reduced to the level of fulfilling man's

food and his sexual needs! That is, it was perceived that justice is

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46

confined to economic justice; and second, justice was taken equal to

“equality of all human beings”!

The first blunder denies man's God-given, inherent virtue and reduces

him to the level of animals; while the second blunder undermines

virtues and acquired, man-made potentials of individuals. Human

beings have different talents. The neglect of their differences and

capabilities is the worst kind of exploitation and injustice against

man's status and rights. The main cause of defeat of Marxism was

these very blunders. No trend or event in the history of mankind

undermined justice as much as Marxism nor did it squander human

and cultural assets in the name of justice as it did.41

Today too some thinkers like John Rawls who (1921-2002) maintain

that justice is based on contract42, commit a blunder, for this is an

attempt to solve the inherent contradiction between liberalism and

justice through partial intervention on one side of the contradiction,

that is, the base and foundation of justice. It means falsification of

justice in the interest of liberalism not a solution of the contradiction

between them! A question that rises here is: if justice draws its

justifiability from contract and agreement, what is the source of

credibility of the contract? Is the credibility of contract based on the

contract itself? Does it have any other source such as the necessity

of commitment to promise, or the justness of the preference of the

vote and consent of the majority? What is the source of credibility

and reliability of these bases? Is it the contract? In our opinion, the

principle of the necessity of commitment to promise or justness of

the priority of viewpoint of majority to minority cannot be based on

contract, rather the credibility and necessity of these two bases are

founded on specific ethical, anthropological principles.

Basically the worst kind of oppression against the status of truth

and justice is reliance on the preference of the vote of majority to

consider the most sublime ideas equal to the most lowly ones, and

the nastiest behaviors and deeds with the most sublime and virtuous

ones, and preferring the nastiest, lowliest thoughts and deeds to the

most sublime ones only on the pretext that they are the viewpoints of

the majority, considering them just on the basis of a contract theory.

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

47

If justice is relative and hypothetical and the justice and the principle

of preference of the vote of majority lack any base or constant

meaning, one act may be considered just in one occasion and unjust

in another. In this case the theory of justice based on contract will be

self-contradictory. As a result, it is not clear as to why such theories

should be considered authentic and correct and preferred to rival

theories? Basically, one of the reasons for the lack of commitment to

the principles of justice and ethic and the increase in the number of

offenses in our time is lack of belief in the divine backing of these

principles and their truthfulness.

2 - The justification of oppressive practices on the vain pretexts is

another impediment of justice as a result of which justice has always

been victimized! For instance, on the pretext that ends justifies the

means, man has been victim of numerous inequities. Or on the

pretexts of exigency and conservatism numerous rights have been

trampled upon.

3 - Another obstacle to justice is

the difficulty of its establishment

by the rulers and toleration

of its realization by the ruled.

Commitment to the requirements

of justice is very difficult for the rulers and its tolerance very

cumbersome and vexatious for the ruled - when it is not directly in

their interests. However, in Imam Ali's (AS) viewpoint, justice is

vast and widespread and it will be more difficult to bear oppression

for a person who feels that justice is difficult to tolerate.43

4 - Another impediment of justice is separating it from other

sublime values. As mentioned above, justice is intertwined with a

number of categories and values. Hence, its deserving status must

always be preserved in the network of sublime values so that other

values are not sacrificed in the name of justice and on the pretext of

commitment to other values it is not trampled upon.

Also true justice is just like a charter and is multidimensional.

Emphasizing on one dimension of justice like its economic aspect

Man's conscience has not still recovered

from injuries inflicted on it due to wrong

interpretations of Karl Marx of justice and his

followers

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48

and negligence of its other aspects will impede the realization of true

justice.

5 - As external (social) freedom is dependent on inner (ethicalspiritual)

freedom44, external (regarding others) justice is dependent

on inner (regarding self) justice. One who is not fair to himself

cannot be believed to be just to others. One who has not cut off

from material, selfish interests and has not yet joined the stream of

freedom is in fact a captive of his own self and commits inequity

against himself. How can we accept that one who denies the

existence of God and does not believe in Resurrection is just and

seeks the realization of justice? Moreover, what is the incentive of

such a person to be committed to justice?45

6 - Another obstacle and impediment of justice is the friendships

and animosities and liking and disliking. This is one of the greatest

obstacles to the realization of justice. The holy Quran encourages

the believers not to oppress even their enemies46; likewise it asks

them not to compromise the principles of justice even if it is to the

detriment of their friends and relatives.47

7 - Another impediment of justice is discrimination. We have

already mentioned that there is no principle or rule superior and

more comprehensive than justice in the sphere of life and existence.

Exclusion of any individual or stratum from its inclusion will

endanger justice.

8 - Unnecessary lenience and mercy is another impediment of

realization of justice. Failure to establish justice on the pretext of

being lenient to an offender who has cruelly trampled upon others'

rights will encourage the spread of oppression and corruption.48

9 - Differences between the words and actions of the advocates

of justice undermine the confidence of the masses in their claims,

leading to some sort of social hypocrisy. Such claimants can never

be the administrators of justice. The people too, due to the lack of

confidence in such administrators, do not cooperate with them and

violate what they claim to be justice. As a result, justice does not find

any opportunity to be realized.

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

49

10 - The source of commitment of oppression always lies in the

weakness and overt or covert need of the oppressor. God does not

commit oppression, for He does not need to commit oppression

and purified is His divinity from any weakness. But, human beings

sometimes for the sake of repulsion of a danger or loss and sometimes

for the sake of an exigency or interest commit oppression. Hence,

weakness and need are other impediments of justice.49

The obstacles and impediments mentioned above unfortunately

permeate man's life today and most of the nations of the world

and the entire mankind are afflicted with them. Of course each of

these impediments has its own solutions and we believe that the

religious teachings contain the most comprehensive solutions to

these problems. Indeed, it is only through return of contemporary

man to divine teachings that the realization of justice is possible and

its obstacles can be removed.

Endnotes

1 Nahjul Balagha, compiled by Seyed Radi, Sermon 185.

2 It refers to the following question: what is beauty? In fact it is represented in many

diverse and varied examples such as a flower, the starry sky, in a good handwriting, and in

an eloquent speech. A similar question can be asked about the truth of justice and diverse

answers can be provided to it. In this article we are confined to a free definition of justice.

3 Aristotle, Politics, Hamid Enayat, Tehran, Nil.

4 The renowned contemporary Iranian philosopher in his valuable work, Al-Mizan, Vol. 1,

P. 371, gives the same definitions. Many other Muslims thinkers have approved of the same

definition. Moulavi in his Mathnavi, Sixth Book, verse 2560, offers similar definition.

5 Nahj ul Balagha, Saying 437.

6 Ghawali al-Lali, Vol. 4, P. 103.

7 Allama Majlesi, Bahar al Anwar, Vol. 78, P. 83.

8 Ibid., Vol. 20, P. 17.

9 Ghorar ul Hikam, Tradition 3464.

10 Determination of the relationship between justice and other related subjects is possible.

Although other subjects are diverse, justice too is multidimensional.

11 The Quran 3:18.

12 The Quran 3: 108.

13 The Quran 4: 40.

14 The Quran 10: 44.

15 Allama Majlesi, Bahar al Anwar, Vol. 78, P. 83.

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50

16 This is my definition of religion, but it should be mentioned that the ways of report are

not limited to the holy scriptures rather reason and man's nature too are considered some

channels for receiving some statements of the religion.

17 “Surely the foundations of religion are monotheism and justice,” Bahar al

Anwar, Vol. 20, P. 17; Imam Ali (AS), Nahj ul Balagha, Sermon 185 “[God]

established equity in creation and realized justice in His commandments [religion]

for mankind.”

18 “…Luqman said to his son while he admonished him: O my son! Do not associate aught

with Allah; most surely polytheism is a grievous inequity.” The Quran 31: 13.

19 For instance see the following verses: “O you who believe! Be maintainers of justice…”

[4: 135]; “… Can he be held equal with him who enjoins what is just, and he (himself) is

on the right path?” [16: 76]; “…act equitably, that is nearer to piety…” [5: 8]; “…when

you judge between people you judge with justice…” [4: 58]. It is noteworthy that the verse

135 of Chapter 4 and verse 8 of Chapter 8 have similar contents and by juxtaposing them

one may conclude that rising for maintenance of equity is similar with that for the sake of

Allah.

20 “And We will set up a just balance on the day of resurrection, so no soul shall be dealt

with unjustly in the least and though there be the weight of a grain of mustard seed, (yet)

will We bring it, and sufficient are We to take account.” [21: 47]; “… I will not waste the

work of a worker among you, whether male or female…” [3: 195] “… Nor shall they enter

the garden until the camel pass through the eye of the needle; and thus do We reward the

guilty.” [7: 40]

21 The Quran 57: 25.

22 “And thus we have made you a medium (just) nation that you may be the bearers of

witness to the people and that the Apostle may be a bearer of witness to you…” 2: 143;

In Al-Jame' ul Ahkam ul Quran, Vol. 1, P. 14, Qartabi Ansari has interpreted the medium

nation as the just nation.

23 There are numerous traditions on this issue and the traditions are so frequent that there

is no doubt about it. For instance see: Shaikh Tuis, Man La Hadarah ul Faqih, Vol. 4, P. 17,

tradition 2:54.

24 The verse considering realization of equity and justice as the main objective and aim of

the appointment of the prophets very clearly refer to the justice as the objective of Sharia;

see 57: 24 (Chapter Hadid); Also see 8: 24 and 2:179.

25 Poverty which is clear example of injustice is next to infidelity and will lead to

disbelief.

26 According to a Quranic verse whoever does not judge by what has been revealed by

God is unjust: “Whoever did not judge by what Allah revealed, those are they that are the

unjust.” [5: 45]. Therefore, in our opinion the statement attributed to Prophet Mohammad

(PBUH), that is, “The state survives with infidelity, but not with inequity,” is not authentic,

for given the close proximity of justice with religion and religiousity, justice cannot be

associated with infidelity.

27 “Justice is the at the top of faith and collector of benevolence,” Imam Ali (AS), Ghoror

al Hikam, tradition 1704.

28 The renowned thinker, the late Mohammad Taqi Ja'fari, has considered this definition the

best one for justice, Translation and Interpretation of Nahj ul Balagha, Vol. 3, P. 254.

Status of Justice and Its Obstacles

51

29 “And appointed him to establish justice.” Imam Ali (AS), Ghorar ul Hikam, Tradition

3464.

30 See Traditions 4789, 4215, 8722, 4789, 774 and 4948 in Ghorar ul Hikam.

31 See the following statement of Imam Ali (AS): “A weak whose rights have not been

vindicated by me is superior unless I vindicate his right and the strong is weak unless I have

not vindicated the weak against him.” Nahj ul Balagha, Letter 37.

32 Some of the jurisprudential rules determine such freedoms; they are rational in nature.

33 See, Ragheb Isfahani, Al-Mofradat fi Gharib al-Quran, article on Justice.

34 “And what reason have you that you should not fight in the way of Allah and of the weak

among the men and the women and the children, (of) those who say: Our Lord! Cause us

to go forth from this town, whose people are oppressors, and give us from Thee a guardian

and a give us from Thee a helper.” 4: 75.

35 See: Mula Mahdi Naraqi, Jame' ul-Sa'adaat, Vol. 1, P. 91, and Mulla Ahmad Naraqi,

Mi'raj ul-Sa'adah, P. 32.

36 “… make peace between them with justice and act equitably; surely Allah loves those

who act equitably.” 49: 9.

37 Imam Ali (AS) has said: One who develops the cities as if he is establishing justice.

Ghorar ul Hikam, Tradition 9543.

38 The Quran 10: 44.

39 See Koleini, Al-Kafi, Vol. 1, 242.

40 Ghorar ul Hikam, Tradition 5274.

41 Today, through its wrong interpretation of freedom, liberalism has inflicted irreparable

damages on freedom and other sublime human values, but very soon man will come out of

the cocoon of this blind dogmatism and rectify his path. Let's hope that this will not take

time.

42 John Rawls, Justice, Fairness and Rational Decision-making, tr. by Mostafa Malekian,

Naqd va Nazar, Vol. 3, No. 3, Spring and Summer 1997.

43 See: Nahj ul Balagha, Book 126.

44 See Rashad Ali Akbar, Sacred Democracy, Maqaleh Azadi, Research Institute of Culture

and Islamic Thought.

45 “And whoever goes beyond the limits of Allah, has indeed does injustice to his own

soul,” 65 [Al-Talaq]:1 Also Imam Ali (AS) has said: “How can a person who does injustice

his soul, be just?” Ghorar ul Hikam.

46 “…and let not hatred of a people incite you not to act equitably; act equitably, that is

nearer to piety…” 5: 8.

47 See: The Quran 6: 15.

48 The Quran warns the Muslims lest pity and mercy prevent them from implementation

of the divine limits: “… and let not pity for them detain you in the matter of obedience to

Allah…” 24: 1.

49 See: Sahifeh Sajadiyah, Supplication 48.

Interfaith dialogue not only should take place with the objective

of peace-seeking, but against a backdrop of peacefulness,

which first and foremost requires a consensus definition of

peace. Peace is the natural and desirable form of human life and

consequently peacefulness has been part of his nature and his

missing goal throughout the history. Nevertheless, attempts for

scientific study and elaboration of peace have not yet reached the

acceptable level. The phenomenon of peace is not the subject of

a specific, independent discipline. However, Irenology1 has been

mentioned as the science of peace2 but this concept has not yet

been widely established and the phrase Peace Studies or Peace

Research3, particularly in the international law and international

relations, is more widely used and better known.

Peace and Peacefulness:

An Islamic Approach

Mohsen Alviri

* ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT

OF HISTORY AND CULTURE, IMAM SADIQ

(AS) UNIVERSITY

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

Peace and Peacefulness ...

53

In the ancient texts we come across limited literature about peace.

For instance, before Christ the literature about peace are those

written by the Greek for imposition of some limitations in wars

and application of political methods to put an end to the wars. They

contain some ideas about war, peace and international relations4.

During the recent decades discussions about the concept of peace

have been transferred from the battlefield and politics to the political

texts and international law and consequently several viewpoints

about the concept of peace, its foundations, aspects and types have

been put forth. However despite the existence of various approaches

by the philosophers, jurisprudents, story-writers, and scholars of

international relations and political science to the phenomenon of

peace, the predominant approach to peace studies is political and

international legal5. However, it does not mean that all those who

have studied peace are experts of international law or international

relations. W. B. Gallie, in a book entitled Philosophers of Peace

and War, has studied the ideas of such thinkers as Kant, Marx, and

Tolstoy about peace. In the introduction of the book, he mentions

that the ideas of peace can be found even in the works of novelists

and philosophers6. The definitions of peace are divided into five

categories:

1 - The definitions garnered from immediate knowledge, observation

and personal understanding.

2 - The definitions garnered by reversing the definitions of war

(peace means a condition where there is no war).

3 - Mythical definition (just like the return of Jesus Christ and his

rule).

4 - Ancient definitions.

5 - Statistical definition (the statistics of the death caused by

pogrom, etc.).7

However from the viewpoint of international relations, peace means

avoidance of differences and severe military confrontation with

other countries. In other words, peace is relative military stability

and lack of differences and disorder in the international security

system. But in viewpoint of international law, peace can be achieved

through a binding document signed by the countries and observation

of a hierarchical order in international relations8. In some other

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54

political and international law texts, peace means putting an end to

the violence and conflicts, settlement of controversial claims through

compromise and establishment of a new order which regardless of

its correctness or wrongness ensures stability, security, peace and

tranquility9. A contemporary French sociologist has defined peace

as follows: Peace is the condition of a group of human beings who

determine their own fate or in other words a politically independent

group, but does not include massacre and controlled, organized

pogrom.10

Despite the attempts made to give a clear-cut acceptable definition

of peace, one may state strongly that there is not yet any encouraging

sign of achieving such a definition.11 Interestingly, the United

Nations, which is responsible for peacekeeping12 and during the past

two decades has several times taken some measures to this effect,

has not yet offered a clear definition of this concept in its Charter or

in other documents. In fact the UN has called on the experts to give a

clear definition of this concept.13

Belligerency and continuation of spirit of defiance of peace under

the banner of peace is another point that calls for putting forth a

definition and theory of peace. Former US President Richard Nixon,

in a book titled, Real Peace, written on so-called peace and ways of its

expansion, writes: The most effective and desirable method against

the Soviet Union is leniency and moderation in words, while holding a

big stick… Our today's world will attain a real, perpetual peace when

the Soviets give up their aggressive weapons and equipments.14

Such viewpoints and expressions such as “peace means diplomacy

of continuation of war”15, “armed peace”16, or the contents of such

books as “The Strategy of Peace”, by John F. Kennedy, or statesponsored

terrorism and the savagery of the United States and Israel

under the banner of peace operations show that peace-seeking in this

world does not have any fault line with belligerency.

In addition to the research and studies related to the concept of

peace, the most important topics thus far studied under the title of

peace are: the strategy of spreading peace17, obstacles and hurdles

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55

of peace, peace plans18, the legal differences and commonalities

between peace and cease-fire and truce19, kinds of peacefulness,

(peace-seeking)20, borders between peace and ethics21, relations

between peace and meta-ethical theories22, and finally relations

between peace and religion. Attention to the religious programs and

approaches is a new approach in the field of peace in its today's

sense which requires due attention. Probably due to the fact that

these studies are new, there are some rudimentary approaches about

the stance of religion, particularly Islam, to peace. David Barash, the

author of Approaches to Peace, states that religions pay attention to

peace in a rational manner, for peace is the natural mode of man's life

and definitely avoidance of violence is among the religious doctrines.

However, he maintains that there is a kind of paradox here, for the

religious doctrines are double-edge sword. They sometimes invite to

war and sometimes to peace. On the side of invitation to peace, there

is talk of destruction of enemies of their Gods in the teachings of

some religions. In some religions

there is also a positive approach

to war under the title of holy war

and those who participate in it will

definitely go to the heaven after

death. In his opinion, the crusades

were a kind of holy warriors in

viewpoint of the Christians and the ultimate war of the Christians for

expelling the Muslims from Palestine23 was also so24. In the chapter

on the religious inspirations, in which he discusses the religious

teachings of Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Judaism, and Christianity

about peace25, he has not allocated any space to Islam. On the side

of scholarly discussions about the stance of religion towards peace,

attention has been paid to practical measures of religious institutions

for peace. For instance, currently, about 80,000 local churches

under the National Association of Evangelicals (NAE), propagate

peace from the Biblical viewpoint, but as understood from Pickus

explanation, these activities are not public and still have a national

approach26.

It seems that religious teachings in the field of peace require more

precise and deeper revision. The understanding and study of religious

The United Nations, which is responsible

for peacekeeping has not yet offered a clear

definition of this concept in its Charter or in other

documents. In fact the UN has called on the

experts to give a clear definition of this concept

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56

approaches are not only useful for completing the information

about the history of peace studies but also will be beneficial for

preparing the intellectual and theoretical grounds required for the

spread of peace. The man-made political ideas and ideologies that

always under go changes and evolve have not been able to prepare

a constant basis or a pivot in the field of peace that could be agreed

upon by all individuals and nations. The renowned contemporary

German Christian theologian, Paul Tillich (1886-1965), maintains

that the best base for achieving such a goal is religion:

Peace and tranquility is possible where power is in the service of

the duty of spreading genuine awareness and cognition determines

the border and limits of everything. The source of absence of peace

in the twentieth century Germany was refusal of this reality. The

aim of all peaceful efforts in the literature and politics should be the

reconstruction of the base and foundation. The peace negotiations

based on this foundation should be avoided. Such negotiations

not only will not help materialization of peace but also will be

detrimental to… Peaceful belief in law requires strong, unconditional

commitment to the limits… No finite thing can pass through the

border between finite and infinite; but something else is possible.

The eternal essence can on His behalf pass through the border and

reach the issue of finite… Religions are sublimating factors sent by

the infinite being, legislating being, the founder and guide of all

beings to make peace and tranquility possible… This is the religions

that prevent us from thinking of attacking the last borderline, that is,

the borderline of the eternal being. These factors are always at work,

but can be effective only when we are ready to accept them27.

A cursory look at the teachings of Islam would strengthen the idea

that Islam pays serious attention to culture-building in the field of

peace which is worth-studying in order to clarify its compatibility

or incompatibility or similarity and dissimilarity with the prevailing

concept of peace.

One method for discerning Islamic viewpoints about peace is the

study of the concepts related to peace and content analysis of the

verses and traditions related to the relations between governments

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57

and nations, which require an independent study.

What can be briefly said in this regard is that religious doctrines in

the field of the relations of Muslims with each other and the relations

of Muslim nations with other nations always depict an atmosphere

which is compatible only with peaceful ideas. Several examples in

the religious texts bear witness that the relations of the Muslims with

the non-Muslims are based on peace so long as the latter do not want

to harass or hatch plots against the former.

Some of these examples are given below:

A) The Muslims are not allowed to wage war on the non-Muslims

in order to convert them to Islam. There is not even a single verse

in the holy Quran indicating that the Muslims should wage war

against others to forcefully convert them to Islam or become Muslim

compulsorily28.

B) Priority of all peaceful means to war - The Prophet of Islam

(PBUH) and his followers tolerated lots of animosities and tortures

imposed on them by the infidels while in Mecca, but God did not

allow them to wage a war against them. The permission was given

to them only after sometimes after migrating to Medina29. Even

during the Badr Battle, according to a tradition, when the Quraysh

descended in Bader, the Prophet (PBUH) sent a Companion to them

and tried to convince them not to wage a war and expressed his

abomination of drawing the sword30.

C) Priority of call and cultural activities as well as admonishment

to war - This issue has been underlined in all Shia and Sunni

jurisprudential books. Ibn Abbas has been quoted in a tradition as

saying: The Prophet did not wage war against any group expect first

extending his invitation to them.31

D) Calling all the Muslims to a peaceful life32 - “O you who believe,!

Enter into submission one and all, and do not follow the footsteps of

Satan (Shiatan); surely he is your open enemy.”33

E) Recommending the Muslims to be kind to the non-aggressors

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- This issue can be inferred from the following verses34:

1 - “…and do not exceed the limits, surely Allah does not love those

who exceed the limits.”35

2 - “Allah does not forbid you respecting those who have not made

war against you on account of (your) religion, and have not driven

your froth from your homes, that you show them kindness and deal

with them justly; surely Allah loves the doers of justice.”36

These issues clearly underline the efforts of Islam to reduce the

grounds for war and boost the grounds for establishment of peace

in the world. However, this issue can be studied by another method

as well, that is, attempts to find terms and concepts related to the

concept of peace and studying their status and role in the Islamic

thought. Mention should be made that the understanding of the

terms and their linguistic analysis and even understanding of their

antonyms will contribute to the understanding of the Islamic ideas,

particularly the Quranic teachings in this regard. The understanding

of a considerable chunk of Islamic teachings is contingent upon the

understanding of the terms used in the Quran and Islamic traditions.

There are three concepts in the Islamic texts and sources expressing

the concepts related to peace: sloh (peace), salm and hodnah and

mohadina.

Also the antonyms of the said concepts are: jihad (holy war), qital

(killing), difa' (defense), harb (war), and tanazo' (struggle).

If we confine our study to the concepts expressing the terms related

to peace, in order to find the pivotal concept among the said terms

we should explain them for a better understanding. The most reliable

dictionaries, Quranic terminologies and jurisprudential sources,

offer the following meanings:

A) Peace - organizing (against degeneration), putting an end to

hostility, putting an end to war, removing hatred of people

of each other, synonym of salm, achieving satisfaction,

compromise on a subject.37

B) Health (Salm) - means being acquitted, void of apparent or

inherent impediments and peace, anti-war, Islam which

means peace.38

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59

C) Mohadinah - tranquility, truce; ceasefire; compromise after

war or ceasefire by which both sides prepare themselves for

peace; compromise between Muslims and infidels or any

belligerent parties after war and tranquility after excitement

and truce which may lead to a war again; agreement for

truce for a definite period provided that it will be in the

interests of the Muslims.39

Unfortunately the vocabulary books which study the differences

between the apparently synonymous words - like Foruq-ul-Loghat

fi al-Tamiz al-Kalamat and al-Forough al-Lughawiay - have not

discussed the differences between peace and hodnah or salm.

Given the expanse of the meanings of these words and terms and

the area of their application in the religious texts, it seems that the

term salm in Arabic is closest meaning to the concept of peace. In

the Quranic Chapter Anfal, the Almighty God recommending the

preparedness of the Muslims against the infidel enemies, addressing

the holy Prophet, states: “And if they incline to peace, then incline to

it and trust in Allah; surely He is the Hearing, the Knowing.”40

The literal meaning of this term, which originally means being

away from internal and external impediments, compared to other

concepts and in the light of its applications in the religious texts can

be characterized with the following features:

1 - Comprehensiveness - Other terms have limited applications. For

instance, mohahinah normally refers to the post-war peace; peace

refers to the settlement of family feud or feud between two parties

of a deal and reconciliation after dispute but salm encompasses all

human arenas including man's relations with God and is not confined

to a specific arena.

2 - Based on Right - In mohadinah and in peace some exigencies

may persuade a party to accept peace. Such a peace, regardless of

its correctness or wrongness, may sometimes involve forgiveness of

ones' rights and a person or a group or an organization may accept

peace due to some compulsions. Today's approach to peace in the

world is also as such. But the applications of salm indicate that this

kind of peace refers to a peace based on rightfulness and exigencies

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would not trample upon rights in salm.

3 - Not being contingent upon war - Peace and mohadinah normally

come to the fore after conflicts, differences and war, but salm is not

contingent upon and not post-war, but can be the base of regulation

of relations before any differences.

Taking into account the literal meaning of this root in Arabic (s-l-m)

meaning staying aloof from extrinsic and intrinsic impediments, and

the features stemming from its usage, it can be interpreted as peace

in the Islamic thought and any concept or any relations based on

right and away from impediments among human beings (individual

and society) and between human beings and governments, between

governments and governments, between governments and the

nations and even between man and God.

A very important point that occurs to mind here is that Islam has

tried to introduce a culture on micro and macro levels in order to

spread peace. What follows are three examples in this regard.

A- Reflection of peace-seeking (salm) in Islam - God has ordained

that the name of the religion he sent to mankind through Prophet

Mohammad to be Islam: “Surely the (true) religion with Allah is

Islam.”41

Derived from the word salm, Islam means regulation of rightbased,

pure and clean relations between man and God on the one

hand and between human beings on the other. Although most of the

interpreters have paid attention to relations between man and God

with regard to the concept of Islam, considering it as obedience,

surrender and bondsmanship towards God, it seems that peaceful

and rightful relationship among human beings is one of the examples

of servitude to God and surrendering to the commandments of His

religion. Therefore, the name of the religion of the Seal of Prophets

has a common root with the most pivotal concept used for peace in

the doctrines of this religion and both are derived from the same

conceptual grounds.

B - Peace-seeking (application of salm) in Prophet's political letters

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- The life of prophet is replete with examples underlining his attempt

to establish peace. A detail study of the issues of war and peace in the

life of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) requires another time and space.

However, the study of one of the political-propagational moves of

the Prophet will shed light on a truth for us. The prophet wrote as

least 82 letters to the heads and chiefs of tribes of his time, calling

them to embrace Islam. Some 51 of those letters have not survived

and among the 31 letters whose completed or partial texts have

remained for us, 21 letters directly or indirectly use a word having

similar roots with salm or the frequent phrase of “Aslem taslem”

(embrace Islam to enjoy relations based on peace (live in peace).42

That is, inviting the non-Muslims to Islam- which is an established

Islamic principle - is deeply intertwined with the concept of peace.

C - Obligating the Muslims to express their desire for peace in

all their relations - One of the most important methods in Islam

to spread the culture of peace is

making the Muslims duty-bound

to observe customs and norms

through which they can contribute

to the major objectives of Islam.

In other words, all daily religious

duties of the Muslims have some

social aspects which underline their role in realization of the major

objectives of this religion. Contemplation on the delicate aspects of

the religious manners and obligations of the Muslims at the time of

meeting each other depicts the high status of religious manners in

regulation of social relations. Islam has recommended the Muslims

to greet each other with the word salam (peace) in their meetings and

communications. In Quranic teachings, the residents of heaven too

greet each other with the same concept: “…their greeting therein is

Peace;” “…and their greeting in is Peace.”43

The Islamic religious texts emphasize on the observation of religious

manners and the way of their performance, mentioning a number of

blessings for them.44 The significance of greeting each other with

the word salam may be ascertained from the fact that if one greets

a worshipper who is offering prayers, the worshipper is obligated

The significance of greeting each other with

the word salam may be ascertained from the

fact that if one greets a worshipper who is

offering prayers, the worshipper is obligated to

return the greeting while offering the prayers

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to return the greeting while offering the prayers. The word salam

also is derived from the root “s-l-m” (salm) which means open

announcement of commitment of the Muslims to observation of

a rightful, pure and clean relationship with each other and giving

a non-aggression assurance to the other party. In other word, Islam

has tried to spread the culture of peace and peacefulness in all levels

among the Muslims. The word peace is also recommended in the

beginning of any encounter.

What was discussed above was an allusion to the pivotal role of peace

in Islamic thought and in Islam's attempt to build a culture of peace

as well as encouraging the Muslims to accept it. It has been reflected

in the religious symbols and rites as well as in social relations and

even in the way of inviting the non-Muslims to Islam.

A comprehensive look at the religious teachings indicates that peace

is not confined to peaceful coexistence between two parties with

any position. In order to materialize its divine objectives in peaceful

grounds and preventive measures and methods, Islam tries to prevent

the outbreak of war. But when in the way of materialization of these

objectives, others block all the peaceful ways to the Muslims through

employing warfare, Islam will not fail short of resorting to war.

Such concepts as fighting (with the infidels, polytheists and rebels),

holy war (the preliminary and defensive one), war and defense and

their related commandments as well as the ever readiness of the

Muslims to repel the enemies, which have allocated some chunk

of the Quranic verses to themselves, are understandable in this

framework. Contrary to Barash's approach, there are no enigmas or

paradoxes in the religious teachings with regard to war and peace.

Taking into account both the doctrines on war and peace, one can

categorically conclude that the prime message of Islam is peace, but

a peace subject to justice and right. In case of necessity and in order

to achieve the right which is an unavoidable background for true

peace, Islam does not rule out war. But such a war would not violate

peaceful frameworks. The limitations that prevent such a war from

violating the perimeters of peace are as follows:

A) War must be subject to being in the way of God - This clarifies

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63

the objective of the holy war as well as its limits.45 A measure which

is in the way of God should spread grace and blessing for all and

should be free from selfishness and worldly aspirations.

B) Holy war should be cultural in nature - Some of the verses of the

holy Quran on holy war are related to defense46 which are not related

here. Defense is the natural right of all but the verses that call for

war against infidels in an absolute manner according to most of the

Shia exegetes and jurisprudents essentially call to Islam,47 which is a

stage of call to Islam in order to spread the word of Allah and remove

the wrong. The late Allama Tabatabi always considered holy war

defensive in nature and considered primary holy war a fundamental

right of human beings.48 Among the contemporary thinkers too

such thinkers as Rashid Rida, Mahmoud Shaltout, Muhammad Abu

Zohreh, Abdul Wahhab Khalaf and Abdullah ibn Zaid al Mahmoud

too maintained the same idea.49

C) Muslims are recommended to give positive answer to parties

seeking peace - Most scholars have concluded from the following

verse that the Muslims should welcome offer of peace proposed by

other parties50: “And then if they incline to peace, then incline to it

and trust in Allah; surely He is the Hearing and the Knowing.”51

D) Muslims are recommended not to transgress the limits set by the

Law-Giver - There are a number of verses in the holy Quran which

refer to this point. Some of these verses are: 190, 192, and 193 of the

Baqarah Chapter.52

E) Forbidding war and holy war in certain places - War and holy

war are not allowed in some safe places and sites. War and holy war

are forbidden in some places like the sanctuaries, that is, Masjid ul

Haram and forbidden months (Rajab, Dil Hijja, and Muharram).

This point too has been mentioned in the verses 191 and 194 of the

Baqarah Chapter.53

F) Muslims are not allowed to wage war even after the deployment

of forces before the enemy launches attacks - The jurisprudential

materials on principles of holy war emphasize that the Muslims

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should not begin war even after the deployment of forces before the

enemies launch their attacks.

Hence religions in general and Islam in particular spread the culture

of peace. But they consider the concept of peace in close contact with

right and justice. In the modern world, when there is talk of peace,

the element of right is overlooked. As mentioned above, in definition

of the concept of peace, emphasis is laid on the termination of

violence and conflict regardless of its correctness of incorrectness.54

In such an approach to peace, it is clear that the power wielders and

owners of political, military and media power can trample upon the

rights of others and impose their own desired peace that ensures

their interests in many parts of the world. This approach to peace,

which reduces it to the degree of an instrument of power, stems from

the thoughts and ideologies whose ineffectiveness has been proven

in other arenas of life as well. In religious thought, peace is an

instrument for establishment of right and hence Islam does not think

of the settlement of the disputes and prevention of war and violence

regardless of their correctness or wrongness neither it recommends

peaceful coexistence between the belligerent parties nor between

the oppressed and oppressor or wolf and lamb. In the contemporary

political thought peace and war are the two sides of the same coin

and each is somehow the continuation of other and both are the

instruments of establishment, preservation and imposition of power.

But in Islamic thought, war is in the service of realization of peace

and as mentioned above, peace is not an instrument of power in this

approach, rather a tool for the realization of justice and right. Since

real peace is realized in the light of justice, Islam has paid attention

to the ways and means of establishment of justice as well and when

necessary holy war too should be used as an instrument and means

to realize a just peace.55

It seems that this approach to peace is a suitable ideological

framework and at least it merits profound study for the spread of

peace on global level.

The present article may be concluded with a statement of Imam

Khomeini who had the same approach to peace:

Peace and Peacefulness ...

65

“We want the people, the Muslims and non-Muslims to live in

peace and tranquility, but it does not mean that if someone decides

to attack another person's house and transgress it, we would say we

want peace and surrender to his aggression… We like all to live in

peace and tranquility, we like the entire world to live in peace and

tranquility, if we had power would eliminate gunpowder, would

eliminate the weapons of mass destruction so that the world would

be free from such weapons and such crimes, we do not want to fight

anybody… “56

References:

The Holy Quran.

War in the Mirror of Fundamentals, Houzeh Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1, March 1985, PP. 97-

130.

Azari Qomi, Ahmad, Leadership and War and Peace (Collection of Articles), Tehran,

Resalat Foundation, Vol. 1, 1989, PP. 179-195.

Ibn Darid, Abu Bakr Mohamamd ibn Hassan, Jamhart ul Lugha; Ramzi Munir Ba'albaki,

Vol. 3, Beirut: Dar ul Ilm Lilmulain, 1987.

Ibn Mandur, Lisan ul Arab, Ali Shiri, Beirut, Dar Ihya ul Turath al Arabi, 1988.

Al-Ahmadi Al-Mianji, Ali, Makatib ul Rasul Vol. 2, Yasin Publishers, 3rd Ed., 1984.

Ismaili, Ismail, The First Principle in Confronting Non-Muslims, Journal of Jurisprudence,

Vol. 2, No. 14, 1998, PP. 81-106.

Baqal, Abdulhossein Mohammad Ali, Al-Mu'jam al-Mu'jami, Vol. 8, Tehran, Tehran

University Press, 1997.

Botul, Gaston, Tataboiee dar Setizehshenasi, Tr. By Hassan Puya, 1985.

Botul, Gaston, Sociology of Peace, Tr. By Hoshang Farkhojasteh, Tehran, Shifteh, Vol. 1,

1992.

Al-Buti, Ramadan, Al-Jihad Fi al-Islam, Damascus, Dar al-Fikr, 1995.

Bayat, Baytullah, Mu'jam ul Furuq al-Lughawiyah, Qom, Islamic Publication Institute,

1983.

Al-Jazayeri, Houruddin ibn Ne'matullah Hosseini Mousavi, Furuq ul Lughat fi Tamidz bain

Mafad ul Kalamat, Tehran, Daftar Nashr Farhang Islami, 1988.

Khomeini, Ruhollah, Tahrir ul Wasilah, Qom, Dar ul Ilm Publishers.

In Search of Path Through Imam's Remarks, Second Book, Tehran, Amir Kabir, 1st Ed.,

1982.

Al-Raghib ul Isfahani, Abul Qasim al-Hossein ibn Muhammad, Al-Mofradat fi Gharib al

Quran, Tehran, Al-Maktab ul Murtadviyah, 1983.

Al-Zubaidi, Muhibuddin Abul Faiz Al-Sayid Mohammad Mortada al-Hosseini al-Waseti,

Sharh Taj al Urus Min Jawahir al-Qamus, Beirut, Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi.

Al-Zuhaili, Wahaba, Athar ul Harb fi al-Islam, Damascus, Dar al Fikr, 1992.

Sajjadi, Sayid Abd ul Qayum, “Principles of Foreign Policy in the Quran,” Quarterly of

Political Science, Vol. 4, No. 15, Autumn 2001, PP. 169-182.

Shaygan, Farideh, Peacekeeping Operations of the United Nations Organization, Tehran,

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1993.

Shaltut, Shaikh Mahmoud, Peace and War in Islam, tr. By Sharif Rahmani, Tehran, Khazar,

1991.

Dialogue

66

Shirkhani, Ali, “Call, War and Peace in Islam,” Quarterly of Political Science, Vol. 4, No.

15, Autumn 2001, PP. 183-194.

Tabatabi, Mohammad Hossein, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al Quran, Vol. 2, Qom, Islamic

Publications, 1989.

Al-Askari, Abu Hilal, Al-Furuq al Luqawiyah, Qom, 1974.

Faramarzpour, Isa, Wars and Non-Political Peace: Sociology of Peace, Tehran, Golfam

Publishers, Vol. 1.

Kulziyah, Abdul Wahhab, Al-Shar' ul Duwali fi Ahd al Rasul, Beirut, Dar ul Ilm Lilmulain,

1984.

Kennedy, John F., Strategy of Peace, tr. By, Abdullah Galehdari, Tehran, Pocketbook

Organization, 1963.

Al-Mohammadi al Reyshahri, Mohammad, Mizan ul Hikma, Qom, Vol. 4, Publication

Center of the Office of Islamic Propagation, 1983.

Barash, David P. (Editor), Approaches to Peace: A Reader in Peace Studies, Oxford

University Press, 2000.

Choucri, Nazli, “Analytical and Behavioral Perspectives: Causes of War and Strategies

for Peace,” Approaches to Peace: An Intellectual Map, Edited by W. Scott Thompson and

Kenneth M. Jensen, United States Institute of Peace, Washington, D.C., 1991, PP. 271-

298.

Gallie, W. B., Philosophers of Peace and War (Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tosltoy),

Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Luttwak, Edward N., “The Traditional Approaches to Peace,” Approaches to Peace: an

Intellectual Map, Edited by W. Scott Thompson and Kenneth M. Jensen. United States

Institute of Peace, Washington D.C. 1991, PP. 3-12.

Pickus, Robert, “New Approaches”, Approaches to Peace: An Intellectual Map. Edited by

W. Scott Thompson and Kenneth M. Jensen, United States Institute of Peace, Washington

D.C. 19921, PP. 227-252.

Journal of Peace Research WWW.Sage Publications.com/ejournals

Starke, J.G. An Introduction to the Science of Peace (Irenology). Leyd Yorken, The

Netherlands: A.W. Sijthoff, 1968.

Tillich, Paul, “Frontiers” in The Future of Religions, New York: Harper and Row, 1966,

PP. 52-63.

Endnotes:

1 According to Webster Dictionary, Irene means the goddess of peace.

2 For instance see: Starke, J.G. An Introduction to the Science of Peace (Irenology), Leyden,

The Netherlands: A.W. Sijthoff; also see: http://orion.spaceports.com/-daystrom/peace.htm;

also see: Joseph J Fahey: “Irenology: The Study of Peace; http://wwwmanhattan.edu/arts/

rls/facult/fahey/html.

3 The Sage also publishes a journal with the same title whose 39th issue was published in

November 2002.

4 Wholsty, P. 76.

5 See: Barash, David P. (Editor), Appraoches to Peace: A Reader in Peace Studies, Oxford

University Press, 2000, Third Chapter.

6 Gallie, W. B., Philosophers of Peace and War (Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and

Tosltoy), Cambridge University Press, 1980.

7 Ibid.

Peace and Peacefulness ...

67

8 Botul, Sociology of Peace, P. 171.

9 Malekmohammadi, P. 54.

10 Botul, Sociology of Peace, PP. 38-39.

11 Ibid., P. 29.

12 Peacekeeping has been defined as a task of the United Nations Organization.

13 Shaygan, P. 9.

14 Nixon, PP. 120-121.

15 Botul, Op. Cit., P. 54.

16 Ibid., P. 63.

17 Choucri, PP. 287-288.

18 Faramarzpour, PP. 199-260.

19 Some Issues, PP. 172-180; 185-196.

20 Botul, Tataboiee dar Setizehshenasi, Tr. By Hassan Puya, 1985, , PP. 170-180.

21 http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkils/TJP.CHAP4.HTM

22 Meta-Ethical Theories.

23 According to imagination of some Christians - who are termed as Zionist Christians

- the Jews will finally expel the Muslims from Palestine to prepare the grounds for return

of Jesus Christ. According to Islamic texts, Bait ul Moqaddas (Jerusalem) will be finally

returned to the Muslims. Jesus Christ is not an enemy of the Muslims rather after his return

he will join the promised Mahdi and will join his prayers in Bait ul Muqaddas.

24 Barash, PP. 199-200.

25 Ibid. PP. 199-223.

26 Pickus, P. 244.

27 Tillich, PP. 78-80.

28 See: Shaltut, P. 52; Ismaili, P. 92.

29 Chapter Hajj: 39.

30 War in the Mirror of Fundamentals, PP. 99-100 (Quoting Maghadi Vaqedi, Vol. 1, P. 61,

Beirut)>

31 Kulziyah, PP. 25-26; Also on priority of invitation and dialogue to war see: Azari Qomi,

P. 159, Quoting Allama Helli in Tadkirat ul Fuqaha.

32 See: Ismaili, PP. 91-92; Najafi, Mohammad Hassan, "Some points on Jurisprudence of

International Relations".

33 The Quran 2 (Baqarah): 208.

34 Also see: Ismaili, PP. 92-94.

35 The Quran 2: 190.

36 The Quran 60: 8.

37 Al-Zubaidi, Vol. 2, P. 182; Ibn Mandur, Vol. 7, P. 384: Al-Raghib al Isfahani, P. 284;

Baqal, Vol. 5, P. 63, Khomeini, Vol. 1, P. 561.

38 Ibn Mandur, Vol. 6, P. 344; Al-Zubaidi, Vol. 8, P. 377;: Al-Raghib al Isfahani, P. 239; Ibn

Darid, Vol. 2, P. 585; Baqal, Vol. 4, P. 439.

Dialogue

68

39 Ibn Mandur, Vol. 15, P. 58; Ibn Darid, Vol. 2, P. 687; Al-Zubaidi, Vol. 9, P. 366; Baqal,

Vol. 7, P. 465; Kulziyah, P. 70.

40 The Quran, Anfal: 61.

41 The Quran 3: 19).

42 For more information about these letters, see: Al-Ahmadi al-Miyanji, Makateeb ul

Rasul.

43 The Quran 14: 23; 10:10.

44 See: Mohammad al-Reyshahri, Vol. 4, PP. 533-541.

45 Shirkhani, P. 190.

46 For instance see The Quran 2: 190; 193.

47 Al-Zuhaili, P. 78.

48 Tababai, Al-Mizan, Vol. 2, P. 66.

49 Sajjadi, P. 175; Shirkhani, PP. 184-187.

50 For instance See: Shaltut, P. 81, Shirkhani, P. 191; for critical analysis see: Azari Qomi,

PP. 179-180.

51 The Quran 8: 61.

52 Shirkhani, P. 190.

53 See: Shirkhani, PP. 190-191.

54 Malekmohammadi, P. 54.

55 Al-Buti, P. 227.

56 In Search of Path Through Imam's Remarks, Second Book, P. 129.

The element of love has been a motivational force in the

shaping of culture in both ideological and behavioral

aspects of human civilization, and it has been the most

important principle for tolerance between religions. It has been

a basic element in the human creations of almost every form of

human activity, in religion and arts, literature and music, dance and

drama, peace and dialogue, philosophy and mysticism. On the other

hand, love is the original element of mysticism and consequently

mystics of all religions always have been the messengers of peace

and tolerance and have extinguished the fire of fanaticism and

harshness or violence. The idea of love has had a wider and more

indelible impression upon the development of human culture in all

aspects than any other single idea. Many great figures have argued

that love is the single most powerful force in the universe, a cosmic

impulse that creates, maintains, directs, informs and brings to its

proper end every living thing.

Love as the Fundamental Origin of ToleranceIn

the Opinions of Mawlawī Rūmī and Rāmakrishna

Fayyaz Gharaei*

* DEPT. OF COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELIGIONS

& MYSTICISM, FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, FERDOWSI

UNIVERSITY OF MASHHAD

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

Dialogue

70

Love may be divided into three categories: carnal love; human love;

and divine love. The first concept of love arises out of the erotic

desire to enjoy and possess, which is the lowest level of love and

is not discussed in this paper. This paper also will not discuss the

second concept of love. The third concept of love or divine love is

the subject of this paper and it is the highest level of love and the

most important one. In the other words, this kind of love is a mystical

kind of love. This paper analyzes the divine love, in a comparative

method, with regard to the opinions of two great mystics of Islamic

and Hindu schools of thought. These two great mystics are: Mawlawī

Rūmī and Rāmakrishna.

1- The Experience of Love:

1-1- Mawlawī Rūmī's Experience of Love

Jelal al-Din Muhammad Mawlawī Rūmī was born in Balkh, the

capital of the Khārazmshāhiyān, in 604 A.H./1207 A.D. during the

reign of Muhammad Khārazmshāh whose empire extended from the

Ural Mountains to the Persian Gulf, and from the Euphrates to the

Indus. Rūmī's family had settled there for several generations and

had produced generations of scholars and eminent theologians. His

father, Muhammad Bah al-Din was prominent among the theologians

and Sufis of his time, and was titled Sultan al-΄Elam. When Rūmī

was a child, his father migrated from Balkh to Quniyyah in Turkey.

The early period of his life, up to the age of 38, was marked by

academic and religious education. At the age of 25 he traveled in

search of knowledge to great centers of learning like Damascus and

Halab, and he was in Damascus for seven years. Rūmī's education

covered the following curricula: the Quranic exegesis, tradition,

jurisprudence and Arabic language and literature.

Rūmī met Shams-i Tabrīzī around 642 A.H./1244 A.D. This was

a turningpoint in his life, and brought about a revolution in his

personality. His outlook on life, religion and spirituality underwent a

sea change, and he became almost a different person. This meeting

ultimately turned him from a scholar and theologian into one of the

famous Sufis, indeed one of the shining stars in the galaxy of the

mystics of the world.1

Rūmī and Shams after their first meeting closeted themselves in a

house for at least three months. Nobody was allowed to visit them

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

71

except for certain servants. A great change took place in Rūmī after

he came out of this retreat with Shams. Rūmī gave up all theological

activities and teaching. The respected scholar was turned into a

frenzied lover. He refers to his condition at that time thus:

“ I was an ascetic, he turned me into a poet,

He made me chief of the vagrants, looking for wine;

I was a great master and a respectable person,

He made me a laughing stock for street urchins.”2

This fire of love caused Rūmī to create two great mystic works,

Diwān-i Kabir or Diwān-i Shams a composition of around 42,000

verses, and Mathnawī-i Ma΄nawī of 26,000 verses, which are

matchless in mystic literature, and are witnesses to his relentless

passion and poetic genius.

However, Rūmī completely stopped his preaching. His disciples and

students and other people who were deprived of the company of

Rūmī were greatly angry and some of them were annoyed by Shams,

whom they regarded responsible

for this change in Rūmī. As a

result of this antagonism, Shams-i

Tabrīzī understood the situation,

and thought it wise to leave

Quniyyah before his presence

created any serious trouble. Thus

after a year and four months of his stay in this city, Shams suddenly

disappeared. His disappearance was a great shock to Rūmī, and he

stopped seeing anybody. Those who hoped to gain some attention

from Rūmī in the absence of Shams were greatly disappointed as

Rūmī was angry with them. Thus Mawlawī Rūmī experienced

another aspect of love in separation from the beloved, which it is

important in the psychology of love for its consequences alongside

union with the beloved. What Rūmī had gained through his love for

Shams, so far as his spiritual journey towards the Ultimate Beloved

was concerned, is hard to assess by rational analysis. But from all its

manifestations, it is clear that Shams created the maddening love of

God in Rūmī. 3

The suffering period of separation ended by a letter from Shams,

which came from Damascus. Rūmī replied immediately and asked

Shams to return to Quniyyah. After some correspondences, Rūmī

What Rūmī had gained through his love for

Shams, so far as his spiritual journey towards

the Ultimate Beloved was concerned, is hard

to assess by rational analysis. But from all its

manifestations, it is clear that Shams created the

maddening love of God in Rūmī

Dialogue

72

sent his son, Sultān Walad to Damascus to bring Shams back. Shams

returned to Quniyyah where Rūmī and his disciples received him

with great honor. After sometime, misunderstandings again arose

which turned Rūmī's son, Ala al-Din against Shams and others

joined him with the result that Shams disappeared suddenly in

645A.H./1247A.D. for good. Rūmī's reliable biographer, Sipah Sālār

says only this much that Shams left Quniyyah again in indignation,

and although Rūmī sent people to search for him in various places,

no one could find him. But other biographers of Rūmī are in full

accord about the conviction that Shams was assassinated by some

of Rūmī's disciples, and the author of Nafahāt al-Uns mentions the

name of Rūmī's son, Ala al-Din, as the murderer.4

At that time Rūmī's suffering was even greater. Most of the poems in

Diwān-i Shams were probably composed in this period, particularly

those that describe the pangs of separation and intense longing for

the beloved. And because of that his mystic lyrics are called Diwāni

Shams. Rūmī's life shows how love changed his personality, and

shows that without the experience of divine love, mere learning is

futile. There is nobody among Islamic mystics rather among the

mystics of the world who is discussed so deeply and widely about

love but Malawi Rūmī. He is the master of love (΄ishq). The secrets

of love that Mawlawī has explained we cannot find in the works

of the other mystics. Rūmī says in the beginning of Mathnawī:

“He (alone) whose garment is rent by a (mighty) love is purged of

covetousness and all defect.

Hail, O love that brings us good gain; thou that art the physician of

all our ills,

The remedy of our pride and rain glory, our Plato and our Galen!

Through love the earthly body soared to the skies; the mountain

began to dance and became nimble

Love inspired Mount Sīna; O lover, (so that) (was made) drunken

and Moses fell in a swoon

The Beloved is all and the lover (but) a veil; the Beloved is living

and the lover a deed thing

When love hates no care for him, he is left as a bird without wings.

Alas for him then!''5

When Rūmī wants to define love, he says that it is impossible, and

only love can define love, and love is indescribable and indefinable.

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

73

He says:

“Whatsoever I say in exposition and explanation of love, when I

come to love (itself) I am ashamed of that (explanation).

Although the commentary of the tongue makes (all) clear, yet

tongueless love is clear.

Whilst the pen was making haste in writing, it split upon itself as

soon as it came to love.

In expounding it (love), the intellect lay down (helplessly) like an ass

in the mire. It was love (alone) that uttered the explanation of love

and loverhood.

The proof of the sun is the sun (himself); if thou require the proof, do

not avert thy face from him!

Love hath five hundred wings, and every wing (extends) from above

the empyrean to beneath to the earth.

If I should continue to describe love, a hundred resurrections would

pass, and it (my description would still be) incomplete.

Love is not contained in speech and hearing; love is an ocean

whereof the depth is invisible.

In the quarter where love was increasing (my) pain, Abu Hanifah

and Shāf΄i gave no instruction.”6

Rūmī compares reason with love in Dīwān-i Shams in the form of a

dialogue between reason and love:

“Reason says: “In all six direction there is a fixed limit, there is no

way out (of this confinement of physical existence).”

Love says: “There is a way out, I have traversed (that way) many

times.”

Reason saw the market (of eternal bliss) beyond this (worldly)

market.

For suffering lovers there is a delight within.

To the black-hearted rationalist there is an internal rejection (of the

Truth).

Reason says: “Do not put thy feet in the valley of death (of the lower

self) as there is nothing but thorns there.”

Love say to reason: “these thorns do not exist but in your own

self.”7

According to Rūmī the universe has been created by love, and it is

alive by love. We read in Mathnawī:

“Know that the wheeling heavens are turned by waves of love; were

Dialogue

74

it not for love, the world would be frozen love; were it not for love,

the world would be frozen (inanimate).

If there had not been love, how should there have been existence?

How should bread have attached itself to you and become

(assimilated to) you?

Love is an (infinite) ocean, 0 that the heavens are (but) a flake of

foam; (they are distraught) like Zulaikhā in desire for a Joseph.

Everything except love is devoured by love; to the beak of love the

two worlds are (but) a single grain.”8

Rūmī says that love is double-breasted, and it is not only the lover

attracted towards the beloved, but the beloved too is drown towards

the lover:

“No lover in sooth, is seeking union without his loved one seeking

him.

But the lose of lovers makes the body (this as) bowstring; (while) the

love of loved ones makes it comely and fat.

When the lighting of love for the beloved has shot into this heart,

know that there is love in that heart.

When love for God has been doubled in thy heart, without any doubt

God hath love for thee.

No sound of clapping comes forth from one hand of thine without

the other hand.

The thirsty man is moaning, “O delicious water!” The water moans

too, saying, “where is the water- drinker?”

The wisdom of god in destiny and decree made us lovers of one

another.”9

1-2- Rāmakrishna's Experience of Love

Among the many religious and mystic movements, the great saint

Ramakrishna inspired the most important from the point of bhakti

tradition in nineteenth century A.D.

Rāmakrishan, the God man of India, was born at Kāmārpukur, on

February 18, 1836. He was given the name of Gadādhar, the “bearer

of mace”, an epithet of Vişņu. Gadādhar grew up into a healthy and

restless boy, full of fun and sweet mischief. He was intelligent, and

he had a strong memory.

At the age of six or seven, Gadādhar had his first experience of

spiritual ecstasy. One day in June or July, when he was walking along

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

75

a narrow path between paddy fields, eating the puffed rice that he

carried in a basket, he looked up at the sky, and saw a beautiful and

dark thundercloud. As it spread, rapidly enveloping the whole sky,

a flight of snow-white cranes passed in front of it. The beauty of the

contrast overwhelmed the boy. He fell to the ground, unconscious,

and the puffed rice went in all direction. Some villagers found him

and carried him home in their arms. Gadādhar said later that in that

state he had experienced an indescribable joy.10

When Gadādhar was seven years old, his father died. At the age

of sixteen in 1852, he was called by his elder brother Rāmakumar

to Calcutta to assist him in firstly activities and house keeping.

They lived together in the Jhāmakpur area. He refused to study

any further on the grounds that worldly knowledge did not lead

to internal peace and God realization. In 1852, around the age of

nineteen Gadādhar moved to Kali temple at Dakshineshwar, which

was to be his permanent abode and scene of the different religious

experiments in his spiritually

eventful life. It was after settling

in Dakshineshwar as permanent

priest of Mother Kali (the goddess

and the highest symbol of all the

forces of nature in the form of

woman) that his serious sādhanā

(spiritual purification) began. Ramakrishna now believed her as the

only Reality, and the world as unsubstantial shadow.11

He surrendered his being totally at the feet of his fist love, and

accepted the Mother goddess as his only resort. The intense fire of

love in his heart made the formal mode of respect meaningless to

him. In this period he went through great suffering and longing in

which he became totally unconscious about his body or the world.

He says: “I was then suffering from hard pain because I had not been

blessed with a vision of Mother. I felt as if my heart was squeezed

like a wet towel. I was overpowered by a great restlessness and a fear

that it might not be my lot to realize her in this life. I could not bear

the separation any longer; life did not seem worth living. Suddenly

my eyes fell on the sword that was kept in the Mother's temple.

Determined to put an end to my life, I jumped up like mad man

and seized it, when suddenly the blessed Mother revealed herself

Among the many religious and mystic

movements, the great saint Ramakrishna

inspired the most important from the point of

bhakti tradition in nineteenth century A.D

Dialogue

76

to me, I fell unconscious on the floor, and what happened after that

externally, or how that day or the next passed I do not know. But

within me there was a steady flow of undiluted bliss, altogether new,

and I felt the presence of the Mother.”12 At that time, for want of

proper care, my hair was matted. Birds would perch on my head, and

peck the grains of rice left there during the time of worship. Often

snakes would crawl over my motionless body, and neither the snakes

nor I knew it. Oh, what visions flitted past my eyes, day and night.

For six years these eyes remained wide open, not a wink of sleep

visited them. I could not close the eyelids however much I might try

to do so. I had no idea of time or of the body. When the mind at rare

intervals came down to a lower plane, and I had a faint idea of the

body, a shudder of pain would pass through me at the thought that I

was going mad. Standing before a mirror, I would put my finger into

my eyes to see if the eyelids would close, but they would not.13

He was in these conditions, when a Brahmin arrived in Dakshineshwar.

She met Ramakrishna and immediately realized that he was a truly

spiritual personality, and needed further guidance along the path.

She accepted him as a disciple of tantra, a way of communing with

God through sense enjoyment (bhoga). Because of his own spiritual

temperament and Brahmin's able guidance, he soon mastered all the

prescription of tantra, and attained the stage of siddha (perfection) in

this method of God realization.

Another teacher who was to take him further in his spiritual path

visited Ramakrishna shortly after the attainment of perfection

through tantra. This monk's name was Totāpurī, and he was greatly

surprised that on the very first day of his initiation, Ramakrishna

achieved nirvikalpa samādhi, the highest stage in advaita, for which

Totāpurī himself had to undergo severe discipline for 40 years. In

this kind of samādhi, no trace of the ego is left; time and space are

totally annihilated, and nothing remains but the eternal blissful

consciousness.14

At last, Ramakrishna passed away on 15 August 1886, after an

illness lasting several months.

2- The Characteristics of Divine Love:

2-1- The Characteristics of Divine Love In Mawlawī Rūmī's

Opinion

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

77

1- Levels of love: Rūmī discusses both real and temporal love, and

though he holds sometimes the temporal love as the path to the real

love, his own love without any doubt is divine love and real love:

“Those loves which are for the sake of a color (outward beauty) are

not love; in the end they are a disgrace.

Because love of the dead is not enduring, because the dead one is

never coming (back) to us;

(But) love of the living is every moment fresher than a bud in the

spirit and in the sight.

Choose the love of that Living One who is everlasting, who gives

thee to drink of the wine that increases life.

Except love of the most beauteous God every thing, though

(outwardly) it is (pleasant like) eating sugar, is (in truth) agony of

spirit.

A hundred bodies are not worth a bean in the eyes of the lover who

has received nutriment from God's love.

Love for the dead is not lasting; keep your love (fixed) on the Living

One who increases spiritual life.”15

2- Change of personality of lover: According to Rūmī one of the

characteristics of love is to change the character of the lover, as

much as he sees, and he becomes glad and sad in the other way:

“Do not say that the heart that is bound (conditioned) by (such)

bodily attributes as) sadness and laughter is worthy of seeing Thee

(as Thou really art).

He who is bound by sadness and laughter is living by means of two

borrowed (transient and unreal) things.

In the verdant garden of love, which is without end, there are many

fruits sorrow and joy.

Love is higher than these two states of feeling, without spring and

without autumn it is (ever) green and fresh.

Our emotion is not caused by grief and joy, our consciousness is not

related to fancy and imagination.

There is another state (of consciousness), which is rare; do not thou

disbelieve, for God is very mighty.

Wine in ferment is a bigger suing for our ferment; the heaven in

revolution is a beggar suing for our consciousness.

Wine becomes intoxicated with us, not we with it; the body came

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78

into being from us, not we from it.

The lover's pulse bounds up without reverence, he lays himself on

the scale of the King's balance.

None is more irreverent than he in the world (outwardly); none is

more reverent than he in secret (inwardly).”16

3- Destroying of diseases: Love destroys all the spiritual diseases

and weaknesses of human nature:

“He (alone) whose garment is rent by a (mighty) love is purged of

covetousness and all defect.

Hail, O love that brings us good gain, thou that art the physician of

all our ills;

The remedy of our pride and vainglory, our Plato and our Galen!

By love bitter things become sweet; by love pieces of copper become

golden.”17

4- Removing the fear: Love is an attribute of God and cannot be

juxtaposed with fear and limitation; it makes the lover brave:

“In the sight of love, fear is not (so much as) a single hair; in the law

of love, all things (else) are (offered as) a sacrifice.

Love is an attribute of God, but fear is an attribute of the servant (of

God) who is afflicted by lust and gluttony.

What relation exists between the attributes of God and those of a

handful of earth? What relation exists between the attributes of him

who is originated in time and those of the Holy (Eternal) One?

Love hath five hundred wings, and every wing (extends) from above

the empyrean to beneath the earth.

The timorous ascetic runs of foot; the lovers (of God) fly more

quickly than the lightning and the wind.

The mystic's progress is (an ascension) at every moment to the

throne of the (Divine) King; the ascetic's progress is one day's

journey every month.

Although, for the ascetic, one day is of great value, (yet) now should

his one-day be (equal to) fifty thousand (years)?

The length of everyday in the life of the adept is fifty thousand of the

years of the world.”18

5- Unity: Love brings unity and destroys any plurality and changes

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

79

enmity to friendship:

“Blessing, on the universal love, the master (which) gave oneness to

hundreds of thousands of motes!

(They were) as dust scattered on the thoroughfare, the hand of the

potter made them one jug.

Until the spiritual Solomon, skilled in tongues, shall intervene, this

duality will not disappear.

Blind birds are we and very inept, in that we have not once recognized

that Solomon.

Like the owls, we have become hostile to the falcons; consequently

we are left behind (to dwell) in the place of ruin.

Because of (our) extreme ignorance and blindness we are seeking to

hurt those honoured of God.

The animal soul does not possess oneness; seek not thou this oneness

from the airy (vital) spirit.

If this one eats bread, that one is not filled; and if this one bears a

load, that one does not become laden;

Nay, but this one rejoices at the death of that one, and dies of envy

when he sees that one's prosperity.

The soul of wolves and dogs are separate; every one, the souls of the

lions of God are united.

I have spoken of their souls nominally (formally) in the plural, for

that single soul is a hundred in relation to the body;

Just as the single light of the sun in heaven is a hundred in relation to

the house- courts (on which it shines);

But when you remove the wall, all the lights (falling) on them are

one.

When the (bodily) houses have no foundation remaining, the faithful

remain one soul.

Thy intelligence is distributed over a hundred important affairs, over

thousands of desires and great matters and small.

Thou must unite the (scattered) parts by means of love, to the end

that you mayst become sweet as Samarcant and Damascus.”19

Mawlawī Rūmī describes the union of the lover and the Beloved,

which is final stage of the şūfi path, thus:

“It sets forth the real oneness of the lover and the beloved, although

they are contrary to each other, for wanting is the opposite of

wanting nothing. So a mirror is formless and pure and formlessness

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is the opposite of form, yet in reality they have a oneness with each

other which is tedious to explain; a hint is enough for the wise:

From grief for a (long) separation (from Lailā) there came suddenly

a sickness into the body of Majnun.

(Heated) by the flame of longing his blood boiled up, so that (the

symptoms of) quinsy appeared in that mad (lover).

Thereupon the physician came to treat him and said, “There is no

resource but to bleed him.

Bleeding in necessary in order to remove the blood.” (So) a skilled

phlebotomist came thither,

And bandaged his arm and took the lancet (to perform the operation);

(but) straightway that passionate lover carried out,

“Take thy fee and leave the bleeding! If I die, let me old body go (to

the grave)!”

“Why”, said he, “whereof art thou afraid of this, when thou hast no

fear of the lion of the jungle?

Lions and wolves and bear and onager and (other) wild animals

gather around thee by night;

The small of man does not come to them from thee because of the

abundance of love and ecstasy in thy heart?”

Majnun said, “I do not fear the lancet; my endurance is greater than

the mountain formed of rock.

I am a vagabond; my body is not at case without blows; I am a lover;

I am always in close touch with blows.

But my (whole) being is full of Lailā; this shell is filled with the

qualities of that peal.

I am afraid, O cupper, lest if you let my blood you suddenly inflict a

wound with your lancet upon Lailā.

The (man of) reason whose heart is enlightened knows that between

Lailā and me there is no difference.”20

6- Submission: As the result of love, the lover has not any free will,

and he submits to the beloved:

“He is (like) Āzar in craftsmanship, and I am the idol (made by

Him); whatever instrument He may make of me, I become that.

If He makes me a cup, I become a cup; and if He makes a dagger, I

become a dagger.

If He makes me a fountain, I give water; and if He makes me fire,

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

81

I give heat.

If He makes rain of me, I give stake; and if He makes an arrow of

me, I dart into the body.

If He make me a snake, I emit venom; and if He make me a friend,

I do (kindly) service.”21

7- Removing all temptations: Love can remove all the paradoxical

problems as skepticism, determinism and fatalism:

“The intellectual quest, though it be (find as) pearls and coral, is

other than the spiritual quest.

The spiritual quest is on another plan; the spiritual wine has another

consistency.

The fine artifices of geometry or astronomy, and the science of

medicine and philosophy,

Which are connected only with this world and have no way (of

mounting) up to the seventh heaven;

All this is science of building the

(worldly) stable, which is the pillar

(basis) of the existence of (person

like) the ox and the camel.

For the sake of preserving the

animal for a few days, these crazy

fools have given to those (arts and

sciences) the name of “mysteries”.

Similarly, there is an debate (which will continue) till mankind is

raised from the dead, between necessitarians and the partisans of

(absolute) free will.

If he (the disputant of either party) had been incapable of refuting his

adversary, their (respective) doctrines would have fallen out of sight

(would have failed to maintain themselves).

Since (in that case) they (the disputants) would not have had the

means of escape (which consists) in replying (to their opponents),

they would therefore have recoiled from the way of perdition (from

their erroneous doctrines).

(But) inasmuch as their continuance in that course was (Divinely)

destined, God helps them with (logical) proofs.

In order that he (the disputant) may not be silenced by his adversary's

difficult objection, and that he may be prevented from seeing his

we can say that the opinions of both great

mystics about the characteristics of love are

similar or close to each other, although the

opinion of Malawi Rūmī is more all-around and

more precise than the opinion of Ramakrishna

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adversary's success, the only muzzle for evil suggestions (of doubt)

is love; else, when has anyone (ever) stopped (such) temptation?

O (dear) soul, love alone cuts disputation short, for it (alone) comes

to the rescue when you cry for help against arguments.”22

8- Uniqness of beloved: In the heart of the lover there remains no

place for anybody and anything but the beloved:

“For his (His) lovers, He (alone) is (all their) joy and sorrow; He

(alone) is their wages and hire for service.

If there be any spectacle (object of regard for them) except the

Beloved, 'tis not love; 'tis on idle passion.

Love is that flame which when it blazes up, consumes everything

else but the Beloved.

He (the lover) drives home the sword of “Not” in order to kill all

other than God; thereupon consider what remains after “Not”.

There remains “except God”; all the rest is gone. Hail, O mighty

love, destroyer of polytheism!

Verily, He is the first and the last; do not regard polytheism as arising

from aught except the eye that sees double.”23

9- Enabling: Love makes the lover powerful and reaches him to the

end of path as soon as possible, as Rūmī says in Mathnawī:

“By love bitter things become sweet; by love pieces of copper

become golden.

By love the dead man is made living; by love the king is made a

slave.

The mystic's progress is (an ascension) at every moment to the

throne of the (Divine) King; the ascetic's progress is one day's

journey every month.

Love hath five hundred wings, and every wing (extends) from above

the empyrean to beneath the earth.

The timorous ascetic runs of foot; the lovers (of God) fly more

quickly than the lightning and the wind.” 24

2-2- The Characteristics of Divine Love In Ramakrishna's

Opinion

1- Levels of love: Love in God in Hinduism is divided into three

types according to three classes of people. These are people having

Love as the Fundamental Origin ...

83

sattva, rajas, and tamas as the important elements in their natures.

Ramakrishna describes these kinds of lovers thus: “The sāttvic

devotee performs his devotions in secret. He meditates in the night

in his bed … The care he bestows on his body by providing it with

plain food, perhaps a little rice and vegetables. Of luxury he has

none either in food or in dress. There is no show of fitting and

furniture in his house, and he never seeks to rise in the world by

flattery. The rājastic devotee may have distinctive sectarian marks

on his body and beads round his neck, with perhaps a few golden

ones interspersed…The tāmastic devotee has a fiery faith. He

applies force to God like a robber seizing things by force. “What”,

he says, “I have uttered His name and yet I am to remain sinful. I am

duly entitled to the inheritance of His wealth.” Such is his vehement

ardour.”25

When asked, if bhakti alone is sufficient for the realization of God,

Ramakrishna said: “Yes one can see God through bhakti alone. But

it must be ripe bhakti, or loves God even as the mother loves child,

child the mother, or wife the husband.”26

The ripe bhakti through which God is realized in best way, is prema

bhakti or ecstatic love of God. The characteristic of this bhakti is

that when it arises, there remains no need of the devotional practices

of religious love, and repeating the name of God may be enough,

and rather the rituals themselves drop away. The two basic elements

of prema bhakti, according to Rāmakrishna are forgetfulness of the

external world, and forgetfulness of one's own body.27

2- Change of personality: According to Ramakrishna, the foremost

characteristic of love is that it changes man's vision towards the

world and the Being, and it colours one's whole life. Ramakrishna

compares love of God with the condition of a man suffering from

jaundice. A sufferer from this disease sees everything yellow.

Similarly, a bhakta sees his Beloved, God everywhere of the

universe, and with himself as well. Ramakrishna about this feature

of love says: “Devotion is compared again to collyrium. Rādhā

(consort of Kŗşņa) says: “Lo, friends, I see my Kŗşņa every where.”

To that the other gopīs replied: “You have applied the collyrium of

love to your eyes. Hence you see like that.”28

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3- Destroying the diseases: There is something in love, which

produces a situation in a man that he becomes selfless and totally

absorbed in the vision of his beloved. Ramakrishna says: “The insect

flies from darkness as soon as it sees a light. The ant loses its life in

the syrup without leaving it. So the bhakta clings to God forever,

and leaves all else.”29 Rāmakrishna did not regard it necessary to

discipline one's lower desires faithfully in the path of love. But

according to him after acquirement of love for God, control of

the passion would follow by itself. He says: “The magnetic rock

under the sea attracts the ship sailing over it, draws out all its iron

nails, separates plank from plank, and sinks the vessel in the deep.

In the same way, when the human soul is attracted by the magnet,

that is God, it destroys in a moment man's selfishness and sense of

individuality, and plunges the soul into the ocean of God's infinite

love.”30

4- Removing the fear: As Ramakrishna believes, another

characteristic of love is that it destroys all the weaknesses of human

nature. Human beings usually suffer from feelings of shame, fear,

greed, hatred, regard for other people's opinions and so on. It is the

characteristic of love that it frees the lover from all of his weaknesses

and makes him brave and busy only with his beloved, and does not

leave any place for other things. In the other words when the human

soul attracted by the magnet of God (beloved), selfishness and the

sense of individuality of man is destroyed and consequently the fear

disappears.31

5- Unity: According to Ramakrishna the Absolute Truth in religions

is the same, only the paths are different: “You must try all beliefs

and traverse all the different ways once. Wherever I look, I see men

quarrelling in the name of religion, Hindus, Mohammedans… and

the rest. But they never think that He who is called Kŗşņa, is also

called Siva, and bears the name of the Primal Energy, Jesus, and

Allah as well, the same Rāma with a thousand names. A lake has

several ghāts. At one the Hindus take water in pitcher, and call it

“jal”; at another the Mussalmans take water in leather bags and call

it “pānīi”. At a third the Christians call it “water”. Can we imagine

that it is not jal, but only pānī or water? How ridiculous! The

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85

substance is one under different names, and every one is seeking the

same substance. Let each man follow his own path. If he sincerely

and ardently wishes to know God, Peace be unto him! He will surely

realize Him.”32

6- Purification of soul: In the case of Ramakrishna, divine love is

a basic element for spiritual perfection. He says: “To the Mother

I prayed only for pure love.”33 He describes his love sickness that

he has experienced thus: “The ordinary man would die if he were to

experience even a forth of the spiritual metamorphosis that my body

and mind underwent. And of this body too the same would have

been the fate, but fortunately the major portion of my days passed

in ecstatic oblivion of the Mother's divine vision. Henceforth for six

long years not a wink of sleep ever visited my eyes, and my eyelids

would never close, try through I might. All sense of time vanished

from me, and the body idea was totally obliterated.”34

Ramakrishna's attachment to God has been acquired by love and

ecstasy. The absorption of such a bhakta in God is so deep that

a little feeling of separation from God can set his soul on fire. He

says about his feeling of separation from God thus: “Oh, immense

is the suffering that arises from viraha or the feeling of separation

from God ... I was almost unconscious for three days while in that

state. I could not move but lay in one spot … I would cry out at times

that I was dying. But this was always followed by intense beatific

feeling.”35

At the end, we can say that the opinions of both great mystics about

the characteristics of love are similar or close to each other, although

the opinion of Malawi Rūmī is more all-around and more precise

than the opinion of Ramakrishna. In this way we come to conclusion

that the human mind behaves similarly in spite of differences in time

and space.

Although the reasons for the development of mystical tendencies

have been same everywhere, and the human responses to the

existing circumstances have generated specific kind of feelings and

emotions, which seemingly look different in their outward garbs,

they are essentially same in contents throughout the world.

One of the principal doctrines of Shi'a Islam is justice. God

is just and never does anything unjust or contrary to the

criteria of justice. Divine justice is known by reason and

confirmed by revelation. The Qur'an says:

“We shall set up scales for justice on Resurrection Day, and no soul

will be dealt with unjustly in any way.” (21: 47)

God treats human beings with justice and wants them to deal with

each other justly and establish justice in society. The issue of divine

justice is not merely theological, for it has clear and significant

practical implications. All the prophets were sent to establish social

justice: “We have sent Our messengers with explanation, and sent

the Book and the Balance down along with them, so that mankind

may conduct themselves with all fairness.” (57:25) “Surely God

commands justice, benevolence and giving to the kindred.” (16:90)

The search for justice

Mohammad Ali Shomali

* HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF

RELIGIONS AND RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS OF

THOUGHT, IMAM KHOMEINI RESEARCH

INSTITUTE

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

The search for justice

91

It is a duty for everyone to implement justice both in his individual

and social life. A Muslim is the one who is just to himself,1 to

his spouse and children2 and to everybody else, including one's

enemies.3 According to Shi'a jurisprudence, there are many religious

or socio-political positions that require the position holder to be just.

For example, those who lead the congregational prayers, or Friday

prayer leaders, witnesses, judges, religious authorities and statesmen

all must be just.

In Islam, the government is envisaged as an irreplaceable means of

establishing and safeguarding social justice. A just society can be

only maintained by fair distribution of power and wealth. Following

are some of traditions quoted from the Prophet and his household

relevant to this issue.

A - In the year of the Conquest of Mecca a woman from a wealthy

and affluent family committed a theft. The Prophet decided to punish

her. Members of her family and other people appealed to the Prophet

to pardon her. The Prophet did not accept their pleas and gathered

the people together saying that the previous nations had perished

because they had discriminated against the poor and lower strata.

B - Explaining why he accepted the Caliphate after the death of the

third Caliph, Imam Ali says:

Behold, by Him who split the grain (to grow) and created living

beings, if people had not come to me and supporters had not

exhausted the argument, and if there had been no pledge of Allah

with the learned to the effect that they should not acquiesce in the

gluttony of the oppressor and the hunger of the oppressed, I would

have cast the rope of Caliphate on its own shoulders, and would have

given the last one the same treatment as the first. Then you would

have seen that in my view, this world of yours is no better than the

sneezing of a goat.4

C - Describing his plans and policies to reform the previously unjust

distribution of resources, Imam Ali said that he would return all

usurped possessions to the public treasury and to their real owners:

By Allah, even if I find that by such money women have been married

or slave women have been purchased, I will reclaim it because there

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is a wide scope in the dispensation of justice, and he who finds it

hard to act justly will find it harder to deal with injustice.5

D - Once Imam Ali saw a necklace on the neck of his daughter. He

asked where it came from. She replied that she had borrowed it from

the treasury. Imam summoned the treasurer and asked him why he

had given her the necklace. He replied that it was a registered loan.

Then Imam released him and said that if it had been otherwise, he

would have certainly cut off the fingers of his daughter.

In Islam, the rulers must be just, in their individual lives as well

as in their social lives. They must fulfil all their personal duties as

well as their social responsibilities, including respect for the rights

of their citizens. They must observe justice in both personal and

administrative affairs. They must establish social justice and make

sure that neither their agents nor ordinary citizens violate standards

of justice. Imam Ali said:

If I had so wanted, I could have very easily found ways and means

to provide for myself the purest honey, the best variety of wheat and

the finest silk clothes that could be woven. But inordinate cravings

cannot overcome me and greediness cannot persuade me to acquire

the best provisions, when in the Hijaz and Yemen there may be

people who have no hope of obtaining a piece of bread and who

have never satisfied their hunger fully. I cannot satiate myself when

there are people around me whom hunger and thirst keep restless

and agonized. Do you want me to be like that person about whom

somebody has very aptly said, “Is this disease not enough for you

that you keep on sleeping with your stomach full, and around you

there are such starving mouths that will greedily eat even dried goatskin”?

6

Imam Ali also said:

“Certainly, Allah, the Sublime, has made it obligatory on true leaders

that they maintain themselves at the level of the humble so that the

poor do not cry out over their poverty.”7

One of the features of a proper political system in Islam is that

people should be able to protest against any breach of Islamic laws

or violation of human rights. In his letter to the newly appointed

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93

governor of Egypt, Malik al-Ashtar, Imam Ali writes:

“Out of your hours of work, fix a time for the dissatisfied and for

those who want to approach you with their grievances. During this

time you should do no other work but hear them and pay attention to

their complaints and grievances. For this purpose you must arrange

a public audience for them, during which, for the sake of Allah,

you must treat them with kindness, courtesy and respect. Do not

let your army and police be in the audience hall at such times so

that those who have grievances against your rule may speak to you

freely, unreservedly and without fear. All this is a necessary factor

of your rule because I have often heard the Prophet (s) saying, “A

nation or government where the rights of the depressed, destitute

and suppressed are not observed and where the mighty and powerful

persons are not forced to grant them their rights, cannot achieve

salvation”.8

Muslims must not be indifferent

towards wrong acts and unjust

behaviour by others; they must

be particularly sensitive towards

crimes committed by the state, for

criminal rulers are the worst of all

criminals.9

When rulers flout Islamic law or morality, they must be advised to

desist, failing which Muslims must protest and rise up against them.

The Qur'an says:

“You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men;

you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God.”

(3:110)

“God does not love the public utterance of hurtful speech, unless (it

be) by one to whom injustice has been done; and God is Hearing,

Knowing.” (4:148)

The Prophet Muhammad said: “The best struggle (jihad) is to utter

words of justice in front of an unjust leader.”10 He also said: “You

must certainly enjoin the good and prohibit the bad; otherwise the

evildoers will rule over you such that even when the good people

Imam Ali also said:

“Certainly, Allah, the Sublime, has made it

obligatory on true leaders that they maintain

themselves at the level of the humble so that

the poor do not cry out over their poverty.”

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among you pray, their prayers will not be answered.”11

The Imams of the Household of the Prophet constantly resisted

oppression by unjust rulers. A sufficient proof of their readiness

to undergo all sorts of sacrifice is the simple fact that they all met

their deaths through falling martyrs (except, of course, the Twelfth

Imam who is in Occultation). Many of their followers were also

imprisoned or murdered.

The history of the Shi'a is full of struggles and revolutionary

movements calling for the implementation of Islamic laws and

justice. The most striking and inspiring incident in the entire history

of the Shi'a was the tragedy of Karbala. Explaining his purpose in

refusing to pay allegiance to Yazid (the usurping Caliph) and rising

up against him, Imam Husayn said: I see death as salvation and life

with the oppressors as misfortune.12

In his Tarikh al-Umam wa al-Muluk, the author quotes Imam Husayn

as saying:

“O people, whoever witnesses an unjust ruler permitting acts

prohibited by God, breaking divine covenants, acting against the

Sunnah of the Prophet, and treating people sinfully and with enmity

- whoever witnesses all this and does not protest in word or in

deed will certainly be treated by God in the same way as that of

oppressor.”13

The tragic events at Karbala and their aftermath showed that

Islamic society had seriously deviated from the way of the Prophet

Muhammad. The only hope for saving Islam and the Sunnah of the

Prophet and awakening the people was to shock them by means of a

very tragic and thought-provoking event, which was the very great

sacrifice made by only surviving grandson of the Prophet. Tens of his

relatives and companions were murdered, and Imam Ali bin Husayn

and the women and children of the Prophet's family were taken as

captives. On his way to Karbala, Imam Husayn saw the Prophet in

his dream telling him that God wished to see him martyred and the

women taken captive.

Many people were shaken from their slumber by the tragedy. Several

uprisings and oppositional movements took place that culminated in

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95

the overthrow of the Umayyad. The Abbasid rulers who succeeded

them started their claim to power in part on a call for avenging

members of the Household of the Prophet who had been victims of

Umayyad oppression. They, too, however, deviated from justice step

by step, becoming responsible for the deaths of several Imams of

the Household of the Prophet and many other innocent people. The

Shi'a continued their opposition to injustice in whatever way they

could.

Imam Husayn proved that martyrdom is both a sacred goal and an

efficient instrument for safeguarding Islamic principles and values

and defeating injustice, oppression and heresies. This is why the

Prophet said:

“Husayn is from me and I am from him.”14

Imam Husayn was obviously from the Prophet in the sense that

he was his grandson. No such biological reason for the Prophet

considering himself as being from Imam Husayn can, however, be

advanced. It seems that the Prophet was referring to the fact that the

survival of Islam and his prophetic message would require the brave

uprising of Husayn. If Husayn and his struggle had not been there,

true Islam would not have continued. On the day of Ashura, Imam

Husayn himself said:

“If the religion of Muhammad cannot continue except with my

martyrdom, then O swords do embrace me.”

The concept of a saviour known as al-Mahdi also relates to the theme

of Islamic justice in Islam, especially Shi'a Islam. The foremost task

of al-Mahdi and his followers, the first item on their agenda, will

be to “fill the earth with justice” a phrase which occurs in many

traditions. For example, the Prophet said:

“We (I and my family) are members of a household, for whom God

has chosen the life of the Hereafter over the life of this world; and

the members of my household shall suffer great affliction. They will

be forcefully expelled from their homes after my death; then there

will come people from the East carrying black flags, and they will

ask for some good to be given to them, but they shall be refused

service; accordingly, they will wage war and emerge victorious, and

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will be offered that which they desired in the first place, but they will

refuse to accept it, and will hand it over to a man from my family

who will appear to fill the Earth with justice as it has been filled with

corruption. So whoever is alive at that time should go and join them,

even if they have to crawl across ice, for among them will be the

Vicegerent of Allah (Khalifat-ullah), al-Mahdi.”15

Endnotes:

1 In the Islamic worldview, whoever disobeys God has done injustice to his soul. The

Qur'an says: “Whoever breaks Divine laws has oppressed himself”. (65:1)

2 According to a tradition, similar to which there are many others: “There is nothing that

angers God more than the oppression of women and children “.

3 Muslims are required to deal justly and fairly even with their enemies. The Qur'an says:

“Do not let your hostility towards some people to make you unjust. Be just. Justice is closer

to piety.” (5:8)

4 Nahj ul-Balagha, Sermon 3.

5 Ibid, Sermon 15.

6 Ibid, Letter 45.

7 Ibid., Sermon 208.

8 Ibid., Letter 53. This letter is considered as “one of the earliest records extant, outside

the Qur'anic text and the Prophetic traditions, on the model of rulership, in theory and

practice”. See Nasr, Expectation of New Millennium: Shi`ism in History, p. 73 and W. C.

Chittick, A Shi`ite Anthology, 1981, p. 66.

9 cf. Ibid, Letter 26.

10 Uaal al-Kaf, Vol. 5, p. 60.

11 Ibid, p. 56.

12 Al-Hasan ibn Shu`bah al-2arr#n3, Tuaf al-`Uqal, p. 245.

13 Vol. 3, p. 307.

14 Al-Tirmidh, Kitab al-Manqib, Int. serial no. 3708, Sunan of Ibn Majah, al-Muqaddimah,

Int. serial no. 141 and Musnad of Ahmad, Musnad al-Shmyn, Int. serial no. 16903.

15 Sunan of Ibn Majah, Kitab al-Fitan, Int. serial no. 4072.

Preface Any research and study of the concept of justice is a

complicated endeavor. The concept of justice has no outer

counterpart and we could not give a logical definition

for it, defining its limits and borders. As professor R M Hur puts

it “some people and even sometimes philosophers use terms

like equity, right, and justice so if it were obvious what is just

or right we must never doubt about anything thought axiomatic

in justice"1. This study gets more complicated when we come to

answer questions like "is justice a real and irreplaceable fact above

our decisions or something dependent on our inner feelings and

morals?" or "is there an inherent justice in nature of objects?"

"Just" or "Unjust" is a way to describe deeds of human and

mentions a responsibility supposed for the doer of the act2.

An Introduction to Concept of Justice in

Christianity

“If under attacks of contempt, calumny and

excommunication, the sharp searching eyes of

an investigator are not darkened toward clear

eminent reality of justice, greatest most complete

manifestation on earth is formed”

(Niche, Origin of Morals, 5)

Saeed Karimi

* SENIOR RESEARCHER OF RELIGION

AND GNOSTICISM

Special Issue on Peace and Justice in Viewpoint of Religions

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98

Justice seems to be proportional and different civil and moral

orders could be defined as results of differences over values. So it's

impossible to establish a criterion for human conception of justice3.

Different societies understand justice differently. Generally, these

variations relate to differences in their principles of insights and

presumptions of existence and anthropology4. Proving the variety of

concepts of justice, however dose not prove that there is no natural

rights5, or they are impossible to identify. Variety and strangeness

happening here are the same as strangeness that is seen resulting

of errors, which not only does not support lack of reality but also

includes the existence of reality6.

Pearlman believes that divergence of justice concept7 has caused it to

be used in different ways. He lists some of unmatchable meaning of

it as following: 1- something equal accrues to anyone; 2- something

accrues to anyone proportional to his or her competence; 3- something

accrues to anyone proportional to his or her efficiency and production;

4- something accrues to any one proportional to his or her needs;

5- something accrues to anyone proportional to his or her class;

6- something accrues to anyone proportional to whatever law has

assigned to him or her8.

Clearly subject of discussion is very extensive and impossible to cover

it in a short article. Concept of justice has been studied in various

areas; political, cultural, economical, and especially religious. Here

it would be covered in Christianity and to do so, we must observe

some inevitable requirements. Generally religion deals with duties

instead of rights. Religious men think of their duties more than their

rights, seek what their God wants of them instead of what themselves

want, and search their duties to find their rights rather than searching

their rights to find their duties9. Passing two eras of one thousand

years, Christianity enters the third era while it is incomparable with

its origin. It has undergone extensive changes through this long

period so the concepts developed within religion have been modified

overtime. Thus we divide Christianity into three eras (1- beginning

ages Christianity, 2- middle ages Christianity, and 3- modern ages

Christianity) and explore the concept of justice in each era separately.

Justice before Christianity

In ancient eastern cultures, justice had an interconnected unique

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99

concept in all areas of individuality, society, politics, and law.

Defining justice as a divine concept is the characterizing point of all

ancient cultures10. Stability of any social structure depends on faith

of its members, so whenever this faith is reshaped around some new

ideas, another historical era is started. Ancient human adapted with

customs and goddesses of his tribe without ever bothering to reason

this faith. However philosophers and “prophets” of first thousands

years before Christ questioned all collective faiths and unions, while

admitting individual moral independence and existence of general

principles of reality. This meant all collective faiths should resume

their legality based on some general criteria, since they could have

no effect if just stood for existence of a tribe and their fundamental

role were ignored11.

Before philosophy, Greeks possessed an idea or feeling towards

universe, which was appropriately called moral or religious. Based

on this idea any person or object had a moral place. Zeus does not

predominate this rule; rather he is ruled by it as it rules any body

else. Gods are completely dominated too12. “Justice13 is nothing

more than wills of the powerful” sophists believe “is there any

criteria to distinguish good of bad other than what teller of the words

wants?14” but Platonic idea of justice relies on reasons and intuition.

Recognition of it is out of reach of human experiences, and reality

of its existence rests not in this world but in higher world of “ideas”.

Plato describes his idea about justice in his famous book “Republic”15

which in Rustel's eyes is entirely written to describe justice16. Like

our physical health that relies on harmony and equinox of our

temperamental conditions, our mental health depends on order and

equinox of our spirit, called justice, and its illness is deviation from

justice, called cruelty. A country constructed and ruled on Platonic

plans is in size of a little town divided into three classes; peoples,

soldiers, and rulers. “Justice is settled when rulers rule and workers

work as slaves17”. This justice is outreach for mortals18. Plato sees

responsibility separation the right way to recognize justice. As

responsibilities of society should be separated, so applies to classes

of selves. Salvation lies in harmony and cooperation of all parts

and prevention of aggression. This forms the nature of justice and,

conversely “aggressions of one part against the whole self” and

the resulting disorder is injustice, fear, ignorance, and in a word is

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“meanness”19.

In analysis of Aristotle, justice means equality and to be just means

observance of this equality. He starts with equivalent of justice in

Greek (Dikaion), which means dividing into two parts (Dicha)20.

Aristotle then speaks of two kinds of justice; natural justice and

statutory justice. “Real justice is where the interactions of humans

are ordered by law” he puts “and law is where injustice is possible

among humans… this is why overruling power is not left to human

but to a written law; since human (left with overruling power)

struggles for his own benefit as described before thus turning into

a dictator. On the other hand ruler is the guardian of justice, thus is

guardian of equality, and because just, he does not struggle for his

own benefit…21”. Social justice draws on law and is applicable for

people among whom there is a natural demand for law, and those are

people who have equal share of ruling and being ruled22.

Aristotle tries to recognize justice in this world based on rational

principles and through scientific analysis. Ideas of Plato and Aristotle

converge on concept of virtue whose main elements are equilibrium

and balance. Equilibrium of Platonic ideas rests on harmony and

equinox of spirit, which is not scientifically analyzable. While

that of Aristotle is the mean point of extremes, reachable through

mathematical-like methods.

Justice in beginning ages Christianity

Old and New Testaments were and are the most leading document

and source for Christians. A glance at Old Testament shows that its

decrees enjoy a background of “justice” based on divine willing, and

whosoever accepting this order watches and observes it everyday,

becoming individually a just person, thereby observing the legal,

moral, and religious demands of community. Justice mentions the

commitments of any person toward community and is a sign of

faith. In this insight God has no commitment toward human but he

is punisher, meanwhile saver and leader. God is either the saver of

human (Old Testament), or demands kindness for all humans (New

Testament). Biblical ideas mix justice with concepts of freedom,

peace, mercy, and sanctity. This mixing is well known since ancient

Greece23.

Christianity despises the lower world. A virtuous Christian would

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101

think of superiority and greatness of The Beautiful God's Heaven,

and would prevent dealing with contempt of lower world life. Niche

calls Christianity the vulgar interpretation of Platonic idealism,

since Christian view toward lower world against the rule of upper

world, coincides with Plato's view, which against lower word of the

perceptible speaks of upper world of ideas. Religious jurisprudence

and law are of no importance in real Christianity, since law orders

interactions of humans in this lower world. Though this concept

predominated the Christian learning, the Christian society, however

could not accept its requirements in practice. Society could not

overlook its need for law and using it, as a part of essential system of

life was inevitable. Thus willing or not, scholars of Christianity got

into discussions of law.

These scholars defined natural rights as divine rights or rights

related to human instinct thus they were some fixed and permanent

rights ruling over all human customs, traditions, treaties, promises,

and contracts. Some parts of

regulation of these rights were

recognizable by human mind and

the other parts were to be clarified

through leadership of prophet

and help of divine inspiration. Of

course encryption and clarification

of them was left and excluded to religious leaders and priests of

churches. In spite of old connections with religions of Judaism and

Stoicism, Christianity had no interest in perceptible world of time

and place and defined it not more than an illusion24.

Justice in Christianity develops on kindness and love toward God

and fellow-creature. Thus mercy and forgiveness dominate and

affect justice: “slapped on one side of face, forward the other side of

your face to be slapped25”.

Biblical principles of justice are sometimes incomparable with those

of human justice. This verse of bible, for example, says: “murder is

sought to be punished by retaliation. But I say even if you get angry

with and cry at your brother, it makes you liable for trial; if you call

your brother a “fool” you'll be liable for court trial; and reviling your

friend makes you entitled for fire in Hell”. '4Aesus seems to believe

justice as exclusively probable in God's Heaven, and residing in that

Justice in Christianity develops on kindness

and love toward God and fellow-creature. Thus

mercy and forgiveness dominate and affect

justice: “slapped on one side of face, forward the

other side of your face to be slapped25”

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Heaven is only probable through repenting from sins and returning

toward God: “Good for the searchers and strugglers for justice, since

they would be satisfied27”. As mentioned above religious men search

their duties to find their rights, rather than searching their rights to

distinguish their duties. Even Jesus when comes to John for baptism

says: “baptize me hence we would observe order of God28”. Jesus

measures everything with deeds of “Father” and sets it his pattern of

action: “I advise you to like your enemies, and bless anyone insulting

you…so be complete as your divine Father is complete29”.

Prophetic mission of Jesus was to relief the sinners and return them

toward God. He was not assigned to lead those who allegedly are

just and sacred30.

It is an inevitable fact that entrance of religion not only does not

establish peace and stability on earth, but also extends wars and

differences. Jesus confirms this fact too: “do not suppose I am here

to establish peace, no, I have come to fly the swords…31”.

When assigned to call people toward God and paving the way

of appearance of Jesus, The Baptizer John, calls trustfulness and

justice as key for forgiving of sins. "Sir, how do we prove that we

have repented from our sins?” was replied “By your honesty! Do not

gather taxes more than regulated by government of Rome32”. “ I am

sent to rise the fire of judgment on earth, hope it were done sooner!”

Jesus says, “But I am required to pass difficult experiences and how

sad I would be until they are over!”33

Thus appearance of Jesus automatically settles the justice as though

he forces nobody to be just34. Jesus however does nothing on his own

and accomplishes any act through consultation with Father. So they

would be just35.

Obviously justice in eyes of Jesus is not applicable in this lower

world, since it does not comply with human regulations. Either Jesus,

disciples, or church leaders know that divine justice is inapplicable

unless in God's Heaven. Polis calls on people of Athens “God has

settled a day to judge the people of this world just and equal by His

Chosen One…36”

Verses narrated here, I think would clearly show that beginning

ages Christians were looking forward for imminent Heaven of

God. Waiting for divine Heaven and rejecting anything else clearly

isolated them from others in the world and developed an insight and

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moral of spirituality and high temper in them, as called. Thereby

church leaders advised charities to provide needs of the poor, but

never bothered to deal their thought with justice or social reform.

They never reacted against economical inequality unless a sense

of unsympathetic was felt of them toward the poor. Church leaders

even reacted negligently against slavery and never participated in

or supported the antislavery movements effectively. Some of them

even possessed slaves. Slavery was acquiesced by them as form of

divine plan or punishment of sins37.

Justice in middle ages Christianity

When Constantine declared Christianity as formal religion of Rome,

Christians tried more freely to expand their religion. Christianity

in Middle Ages got into a sudden circle, which imposed great

change on it. In these ages science of morals in church was based

on principles developed through beginning ages of Christianity. As

formal possessors of empire religion, Christian churches insisted

on a form of social order based on faith of people and controlling

social opposing forces, which always had the potential to blow

up. A fundamental and practical social idea developed slowly that

regarded current social order as divine fate. This idea voided any

struggle for social reform38.

The greatest philosopher of stoicism, Marcus Oleos (121- 180)

says, “As Antoine my state is Rome, but as human, my state is the

universe39”. This state of Oleos is subject of Saint Augustine's (354-

430) famous book “State of God”. Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome

were three great saints of church leadership living after victory of

Catholics in last years of fourth century and all three rejected logical

politics40. Augustine's main message in “State of God” is separation

of church from government. “Government is part of State of God

only if it follows church in all religious matters”. “Church has

insisted on this idea since Augustine” Rustle says41.

Augustine believes Christians should not feel sorrow if victorious

invaders of Rome are not punished, and assures his readers that

they would be punished for their cruel crimes on Judgment Day and

before justice of God. Finally if all sinners were to be punished in

this world, what was the necessity for Final Judgment Day?42

Saint Tomas Aquinas (74-1227) believed the religious or divine law

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(loi divine) as overruling law that dominated all human regulations.

Comprehensive learning of this law is impossible unless through

divine inspiration. Parts of divine law, which are learnable by

human mind, include natural rights regulation that binds the whole

world equally. So Aquinas divides natural rights as primary and

secondary rights. Primary rights are some fixed and permanent

ones while secondary rights exceptionally are regulated considering

special circumstances43. Aquinas, unlike his predecessors like Saint

Augustine, does not view government as an unwished menace but,

though incomplete, knows some divine threads in it, which has the

responsibility to provide common benefit and prevent disorder. Thus

he rejects revolution against the rulers, however he resumes the right

of their assignment and removal for people44. Aquinas marks orders

and prohibitions of religion as function of subject's goodness or

indecency and states “religion orders on anything mind orders, but

mind is incapable of learning wisdom of some religious orders”.

In this attitude all religious orders are of confirmation or guidance

nature. Anyway natural and rational regulations guide human in this

world and religious law stands for his otherworldly happiness. On

final analysis nature, mind, and religious are of unique divine source

and so they are convergent and compatible45. Clearly church leaders

like Saint Augustine and Aquinas believe in kind of divine order based

on divine inspiration and church interpretation. They exclusively

struggle to approach human toward God. This view rests on divine

duties. Their attitude toward concept of justice is individualistic and

does not consider it from rightness and individual rights view.

So middle ages church lacked any element of social reform and

had a little role in movements like freedom of peasants. In eyes

of church an appropriate social order based on human reason was

fundamentally impossible. Visible current situation of human was

considered and excused as ideal perfection. Social prohibitions like

slavery, male domination, war, poverty, and etc. were considered a

part of unchangeable natural law46, which ordered human interactions

in a world doomed in crimes resulting from Original Sin47.

Justice in modern ages Christianity

What was the reason of Renaissance? How did religion reform

movement happen? What were the reasons of appearance of the

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105

Enlightenment? These are the questions dealt by many of thinkers.

In last year of third century Pop Inosun III called atheism the greatest

unforgivable sin and started fighting Cathars as main job for church.

Through same fights the famous Inquisition Courts were formed.

In this way justice condition of witnesses were not observed and

witnessing of the heretic, lewd, and even children - of course against

the accused - were acted upon. This was the situation till rising of

religion reform movement in sixteenth century against Popish system,

since they excluded interpretation of spiritual and governing matters

to themselves. Movement leader, Martin Luther (1546-1483) indeed

propagandized returning to religion origins and rejecting holiness and

leadership assumed for church. This movement loosened foundations

of church's rule, resumed power and credit of mind, and introduced

individual experience and responsibility as key for happiness. The

movement lasted continuously from fifteenth up to nineteenth

century. This period is Golden Time of natural rights48.

After the reformist movement, great thinkers like Gerseos, Hubez49,

Spinozea, and John Luke reshaped concept of justice, and it reached

The Enlightenment era. The complex era in which an astonishing

transformation happened when scholars such as Mentiscico, Rusue50,

Cant51, Hegel, and Tom Pin fundamentally explored the concept of

justice. Borders of justice were extended through this period and this

extension of social life's foundation has been the subject for many of

modern ages theorists. Following pattern shows the most important

areas of social justice.

A B C

International

relations

A B C D

Cultural area

A B C D

law

Social justice areas

A B C

Social

relations

A B C D

Judgment

A B C

Education

A B C

Politics and authority

A B C D

Economics

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106

What connects people of different class to each other and to

government is an interlinked chain of promises, agreements, and

liabilities. Companies -whether uni or multi national- syndicates,

communities, parties, councils, parliaments, parliament of founders,

referendums, and national and international organizations are all

shaped on idea of agreements and contracts. Contracts base on

consent and consent rests on presumption of independence and

equality of parties concluding that contract. Independence and

consent resuming balance of rights of both parties are the principal

condition for conclusion of contract. Hence political theories of west

are founded on two ideas of natural rights and social contract52.

Currently there are two important ideas of justice one of them

proposed by Rules53 (in “Justice Theory”) and the other by Nazic

(in “Disorder, Government, and Utopia”) - the former based on

social contract and the later based on natural rights. Development of

The Enlightenment54 toward relation of person with society caused

a great intellectual change. Intellectual and social orientations

moved toward mentality and main theorists of nineteenth century

like Hubez and Luke supported individual rights based on an

idea of social contract. After doubts and delays, finally Catholic

Church joined the parties supporting order and authority. Church's

response to this social matter was extremely conservative and even

reactionary. Discussion on human rights was slowly raised through

seventeenth and eighteenth century and Human & Citizenship Rights

Declaration was issued in 1789, arising church leaders in opposition.

They rejected these discussions since they were concluded with no

reference to religious sources. They protested that why some writers

aim to replace divine rights with human rights. In a final move

church formed the Vatican Council II. This council clearly expressed

that church believes in a different set of values and would measure

any social liability with those criteria. In eyes of Vatican Council

II church, based on its faith in human dignity and honor, could not

leave fighting for spiritual rights of human, though it had no political

or economical responsibility and its mission was purely religious55.

Pop Paul VI56 issuing a social advisory note called “Development

and Peace” invited anyone to confirm that universal justice rests on

determination of nations to expand the natural development of poor

nations in the world.

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107

A- Human and Citizenship Rights Declaration

Right57 consists of domination and determination resumed for any

individual in a certain society against other people or objects. Spinoza

defines right as power and ability and comments that there is no right

where there is no power either58. Cant associates right whit power to

obligate59. Heart recognizes three fundamental elements in concepts

of right: 1- existence of a civil structure; 2- enforcement assurance;

3- free willing for the right owner to use the enforcement assurance

on demand to oblige the other part to observe his promise60.

Human and Citizenship Rights Declaration was issued in 1789

and starts its first clause with “All human children are born free

and equal in dignity and respect”. This statement is not an existing

reality but it is an idealistic theory. In eighteenth century discussions

of human rights focused on concept of liberty. In nineteenth century

this focus was transferred from liberty to equality and finally in

twentieth century they focused on concept of justice. Unrivalled

leadership of mentality in human life after Renaissance is the main

point61. Exploring this declaration shows that there is no mention to

divine rights and it is a great sorrow. When no right is reserved for

God obviously there would be no divine justice and religion's role

in human life would weaken. Problem for religious societies is that

Human Rights Declaration is issued with no attention to religion

assuming life in a secular society and neglecting divine rights, so

they cannot simply comply with all terms and clauses of it. Of course

secular thinkers propose some reason to neglect divine rights, some

of which are listed: 1- God, supposing it exists and owns rights,

could protect his rights determinately; 2- even if humans neglect

His rights, they have not committed any oppressions to Him since

it is not possible to oppress Him; 3- supposing existence for God,

His rights are not correctly distinguishable; and most important

4- religion should be humanistic (we could not oblige anyone to

submit to anti human, anti reality, and anti justice acts with reasons

like God, history, nation, and alike); 5- since obligation could not

be drawn on what there is, thus human rights could not be drawn on

their functions and intelligence, otherwise it would result in racism

and alike. Thus human rights should be defined either based on

God's goals of human creation, or based on some fatal goals raised

by human, reaching which requires him to observe those rights

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and duties62. Church leaders rejected this declaration very soon.

They specially rejected tenth and eleventh clauses on freedom of

beliefs and expression of ideas. The right for freedom of religion

was called a horrible right (Droit Monstrueux) by Pop Paul VI.

Church called such declarations as nullifying and rejecting divine

rights. Such oppositions however did not last long and Popish view

slowly adjusted toward human rights, such that today Pop Juan Paul

II approves human rights in his speeches. Tough still Pop prevents

publicly referencing approved declarations and statements. Still

French Bishops Conference in a statement issued on Pop's 1988

trip to Strasbourg referred to 1789 Declaration of Human and

Citizenship Rights calling it a necessary work in preparations of a

responsible society63.

B- Vatican Council II

Last universal church council called “Vatican Council II64” was

held on 11 October 1962 by invitation of Pop Juan II III. Through

meeting of this council and publication of its general statement

called Gaudium et Spes (happiness and hope), the need for

modern interpretation of religion for new listeners in new age of

modernism was clearly felt resulting from weakening of church

ruling, globalization of modern age, growing power of science,

superiority of mind, and replacement of religious leaders' power

with the power of governing structures. Thus many interpreted the

meeting of this council as greatest turning point in modern history of

Catholic Church, under the name of Modernization of Christianity

(Aggiornamento), which was dealt with interchange of ideas through

issuing of various documents in a condemn free environment

provided in Modern World65. Regulations of this council show that

formal reactionary and extremist ideas of church were adjusted and

this time they are to make religion acceptable by giving it a just and

humanistic appearance. Vatican Council II did not deal with politics

but it believed “political society and ruling of people are structured

on human nature, thus an order enforced by God seems inevitable.

However the right for selection of political regime and assignment

of rulers is totally resumed for citizens who are free in it”66. Another

clause approved by the Council tries to keep divine rights while

observing human rights: “any human seeks justice and desires

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109

forgiveness. All blessings should be reserved for them reasonably.

Different forms of ruling structures have adapted with popular

legal foundations in various circumstances”67. Some regulations of

Vatican Council II insist on settlement of justice based on Love for

Christ: “those who eagerly accept orders of Christ, reach for Heaven

on first step and ask him for more pure and powerful love to help

their religious brothers and thoroughly expand justice with lessons

of blessing and goods”68. Another clause advises Christians to create

peace among themselves based on love and justice and intermediate

for peace wherever necessary69.

This document at least raises Catholics' interest for knowing more

on modern world affairs and has connected Catholic beliefs with

human values on earth in way that makes them happy of living in

this Modern World.

Conclusion

Clearly we could not expect justice to be settled until realization of

God's Heaven, since Jesus, himself, was trapped by injustice and

crossed unjustly. It is notable that prophets neither rose to improve

livings for peoples, nor to change their understanding level, but only

created a new meaning and insight into their lives. So we should

not have unreasonable expectations from religion. There are many

differences between Old and Modern age. Their difference is the

difference between faith and unfaith, and it has paced human above

beliefs in Modern age. Old age focused on duties, instead modern

age centers on rights. We talked about Declaration of Human Rights

and Vatican Council II and discussed that modern age, one of whose

manifestations is Declaration of Human rights, lacks divine justice

and divine rights. Vatican Council II was discussed as trying to fill

the gap between Old and Modern ages. We do not try to measure its

success but some points should be reminded: first, in west exclusive

characteristics of God are paralyzed and each part is assigned

to an either real or unreal being, thus the real God is somehow

neglected. Second unreligious duties dominate religious duties in

case of confliction. Third, regarding these two points, church must

take religion as measure in its disputes and problems to protect its

power and leadership, on the other hand it should politicize the

jurisprudential knowledge of religion in order to adapt with logical

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rules of collective conscious, and to satisfy The Creator it should

always look after religion and try to make a correct and humanistic

interpretation of religion to guide people based on it.

Relying on these three introductions, we conclude justice is a

proportional matter and church is only capable of giving general

advices for settlement of justice and not more (as it did in Vatican

Council II). Settling principles of justice and its basis is

Endnotes

1 “People of mind, creators of modern philosophy”, Brian Magi, translated by

Ezattolah Fooladvand, Tehran: Tarheno, 1374, p 259

2“On Justice” Etfird Hound, Translated by Amir Tabari, Nahran: Akhtaran, 1383,

p 9

3“In Hope for Justice” Mohammad Ali Movahhed, Tehran: Karnameh

Publications 1381, p 90

4 If we anthropologically assume all inequalities rooted in individual nature, then

automatically our attitude toward concept of justice becomes individualistic. But

if we say all human are equal and equally created, concept of justice would be

social and injustice would get its roots in society not in individuals. (“Religious

Critical View Toward General Concepts in Politics” Emad Afrough, Tehran;

Farhang va nashr, second edition 1380 p143)

5 Natural rights are founded on the idea that there is a clear and simple concept

of justice in human conscious, which has appeared in all subjective regulations

less and more. Labeling some regulation as good or bad is nothing more than

compliance of regulation with that simple concept which is formed on early years

of human life. (Look at “In Hope for Justice” Mohammad Ali Movahed, p 88)

6 “Natural rights and History” Leo Asturias, Translated by Bagher Parham,

Tehran: Agah, Fall 1373, p 117

7 We should bear in mind that discussing justice and injustice is of no use when

subject of equality and inequality is omitted. So some foundations are introduced

for inequality. Some of them are possession, teaching, job, sex, race, nationality,

and language, location (country, living in city or town), age, religion, and party

membership.

8 “Justice in Political Insight of West” Bahram Akhavan Kazemi, Political-

Economical Ettelaat seasonly, vol. 4, no. 9&10 Khordad & Tir 1379,p 68

9 “Human Rights in eyes of intellectuals” research and editing by Mohammad

Bastehnegar, Tehran, Publication co. 1380, p 327

10 “On Justice” Etferiah Hoomeh, p 14

11 For more information look at “ Gods and Humans” Henry Pamford Parkez,

translated by Mohammad Baghaie (Makan) Tehran: Ghasideh, 1380, p 16-29

12 Compare with Moatazaleh idea about justice. Platonic idea of justice was

founded on this attitude too. Legal concept of justice, more than its political

concept, complies with Platonic idea. On this basis justice consists of returning

owes. (Look at “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand Rustle, translated by

Najaf Daryabandi, Tehran: Parvaz, sixth edition, p 181-182)

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13 Greece term that was translated to justice in English included an idea of great

importance in Greece Philosophy but has no exact counterpart in English.

14 “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand Rustle, translated by Najaf

Daryabandi, Tehran: Parvaz, sixth edition, p 185

15 “Republic” starts with exploration of just person. Finishing the discussion

that justice is reflection of the powerful' determination thus a purely contractive

subject, Aristotle turns to concept of just society and tries to explore it. After

a short coverage of professionals needed in a structured society, it talks about

the need for soldiers, who should be experts too. Aristotle then gives a long

exploration of kind of learning needed by soldiers. Here society is considered as

an individual, thus a coherent whole consisting of parts under its control. Anyone

should devote itself to whatever professional it has a must not interfere in subject

with which he is not familiar. Hence justice means, “ Anyone should be busy in

one professional, most compliant with his nature. (Look at Republic, VI, 433)

16 “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand Rustle, p 73

17 “Open Society and its Enemies” Carl Poper, translated by Ezattolah

Fooladvand, p 261

18 Civil philosophies regard justice based on some Gnosticism reasons, which

appear in different forms. If Delvaque speaks of “immortal justice grain” or

if German national socialists speak of civil structure based on inspirations of

leader's advices, all such interpretations contain reason and intuition. (Compare

with Fourth Edition London 1960 Friedman. “Legal Theory” p 8-9)

19 “Greece Thinkers” Theodore Gomprits, translated by Mohammad Hassan

Lotfi, vol. 2, p 1017

20 Greece just judges judging based on law are called Dikastes, meaning divider

into two halves (Dichaste)

21 “Makheos Nice Moral” Aristotle, translated by Mohammad Hasan Lotfi, no.

1131(b) and 1132 (a)

22 Previous 1134 (a), 1134 (b)

23 “On Justice” Etferiah Hoomeh, p 16-17

24 “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand Rustle, second book, p 17

25 Matthew 40:5, compare with 18:21-35; Loogha 29:6, 31; 42:11

26 Matthew 5:21-22; one of most interesting stories in bible is Sympathetic Boss.

Justice introduced there by Jesus is not comparable with justice of lower world.

There exists an interesting point in this story: “ salaries of those who work one

hour is equal to those working a complete day”. Such justice is only probable in

God's Heaven and not justifiable with human criteria; compare with Matthew 5:

29;9:19; Loogha 16:18

27 Matthew 5:6

28 Previous 3:15; compare with “Acts of Prophets” 22:10

29 Matthew 5:44 & 48

30 Look at Matthew 9: 13

31 Matthew 10:34

32 Loogha 3:12-14

33 Previous 12: 49-50

34 Compare with Loogha 19:8

35 Look at Yoohena 5:30

36 “Acts of Prophets” 17: 31

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112

37 “Vatican Council II, meeting of catholic church and reformism” Laily

Mostafavi Kashani, Tehran: Almahdi international publications, 1378, p 288

38 ”The Social Teaching of the Christian church” Ernest Troeltch, New York:

Harper Torch Books, 1966, p 89

39 “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand Rustle, second book, p 17

40 Previous, p 78

41 Previous, p 111

42 “Knowing Augustine” Paul Strasen, translated by Shahram Hamzahie, Tehran:

Markaz, 1378, p 38

43 “In Hope for Justice” Mohammad Ali Movahhed, p 128

44 Idea of Saint Augustine about divine rules is close to Motazeleh in Islam.

45 “In Hope for Justice” Mohammad Ali Movahhed, p 128-131

46 Hence interpretation of natural rights as rules of nature and appearance of

divine determination continue for years. But through Renaissances and reform

movement focus on divine part slowly weakens and moves to logical parts

independent from religion. (Look at “In Hope for Justice” p 141)

47 “Vatican Council II” Laily Mostafavi Kashani, p 289

48 Idea of Law, Dennis Lloyd, Penguin Books, 1964, p 82 (48)

49 Toms Hubz in his book “Loyatan” believes that in ordinary situations humans

search their own benefits and whoever more powerful would be successful in

fight for living. Humans prefer to establish a dominant element accepted by all,

to protect them against attacks of others. This dominant element is government.

In this circumstances individuals won't be dangerous for each other and justice

would be meaningful here. Hubez sees justice in form of observing promises.

(Look at “What is justice” Robert c. Solomon and Mark c. Murthy (eds) Oxford

university press, New York. 2000 p 63; Justice and equality, Hugo a. Bedauo,

Prentic ehall, Newjersy, 1971 pp 30-31)

50 Rusue introduces two kinds of Christianity: 1- Pure Christianity based on

biblical learning which only sees the other world and is incapable of controlling

order of this world; 2- Catholic Christianity which Rusue calls “religion of

priests. This Christianity lacks any moral value so is useful neither in this

world and nor in other world. (Look at “In Hope for Justice” Mohammad Ali

Movahhed, p 180)

51 Cant said anyone is a goal in himself, which could be a variation of idea

proposed by Christianity. But Cant's idea is defect able; since it could no tool for

settlement when benefits of two persons conflict. This tool could be justice in

most extensive meaning. (Look at “History of Western Philosophy” Berterand

Rustle p 271)

52 It should be mentioned that idea of sharing under contract and equality is an

approximately new unprecedented matter and most part of human history has

experienced sharing based on domination and trick. Social Contract, too, appears

to be an idealistic view, rather than a historical reality.

53 Rulz believes justice as expansion of fairness. The term Fairness that

constitutes the core element of justice in Rulz's view gets the meaning of

honesty, non-cheating, non tricking, and accepting the game rules in his words.

Relations not observing this items are regarded unjust. Rulz says fairness

generally get meaning in game or occupational competition where benefited

parts have freedom of act. Unfair act is not only neglecting game rules but also

An Introduction to Concept of...

113

includes misusing rule holes or doubts. Trying to prevent enforcement of rules

or prevention of it main goal also are unfairness. Such as someone who asks

governmental protection but does not pay taxes, or the worker who joins unions

only to improve his income or reduce working hours but does not pay fees.

Fairness requires limiting of personal benefits and not acting selfishly. (Look at

“In Hope for Justice” p 520)

54 Through The Enlightenment there was a period of replacing human instead

of God, giving human a focal role in universe. Here human is viewed on his

own rather than viewing though eyes of God, and concept of contract is slowly

introduced. (For more information look at “Religious Critical View Toward

General Concepts in Politics” Emad Afrough, p 150)

55 “Vatican Council II” Laily Mostafavi Kashani, p290

56 Pop Juan II III died before second meeting of council and Pop Paul VI replaced

him and leaded the council till its termination in 1965.

57 Right has five meanings: two real and three nominal meanings. Real meaning

of right includes reality of fact. But first of its nominal meanings is allowance

or letting, this right is intransitive. Second nominal meaning is due. This right

is transitive. The third nominal meaning is merit. There three meaning for duty

opposed to three meanings of right. Opposed to nominal intransitive right the

duty is not preventing anyone from that right. Opposed to nominal transitive right

the duty is to pay that right.

Opposed to nominal right meaning of merit, duty is not to overlook those merits.

(For more information look at “More Rich than Ideology” AbdulKarim Soroosh

(specially second part) Tehran, Serahat Cultural Institute, fourth edition, 1375)

58 “Spineoza” Rajer Scroten, translated by Smaiel Saadat, p 41

Fourth Edition London 1960 Friedman. “Legal Theory” p 8-9

60 Look at professor Hart's article: “Definition and theory in” & H.L.A.Hart &

Law Quarterly Review, 1954,p 70 Jurisprudence

61 There is no God in post-modern era. Neither Gods of religions, nor God of

mind are regarded as creator. Currently some religion men use post-modern

reason against unique human rights, claiming that if mind is naturally various and

variety is focus point of modern and post-modern thinking, then unique system

for human rights is not acceptable. If our religious duties conflict with human

rights set “A” it may be non-conflicting with set “B” ob these rights. Toms

Kohen and his followers propose the same reason in philosophy. Of course it is

under critics extensively. (Look at “Intellectual View Toward Human Rights” pp

336-337)

62 For more information look at “Intellectual View Toward Human Rights” pp

320-322. Of course these reasons are useful for those who think irreligiously

and do not believe in any religion. But it is of no use for those religious men in a

certain religious society who follow rules of their religion.

63 Also disagreements have not vanished completely yet, extremists insisting on

enforcing Decalogue and Beatitudes besides respecting religion. All extremists

follow rejection of variety and freedom of believe and expression, which finally

ends to recovering of Inquisition.

64 This council published sixteen documents aimed at reforming all

manifestations of faith and religious manner. Most important lessons of the

council include: 1- superior respect of Bible in faith of church; 2- assumed

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114

spirituality for all Christians; 3- commitment to struggle for union of Christians;

4- serious commitment to fight for settlement of justice, peace, and human rights;

5- holding religious sessions in local language; 6- existence of divine survivor for

followers of other religions. The last item insists on inclusiveness of religions.

(Look at “Words of Jesus” Thomas Michel, translated by Hossain Tofighi Qom:

Religions and Faiths Research Center, first edition, 1377, pp 111-112)

115

Résumé Les oeuvres écrites sur la recherche de la justice ont rendu une place

privilégiée à la question de la justice sociale ou distributive dont

certains penseurs comme Aristote et Fārābi ont traité dès l'antiquité.

Une nouvelle phase s'ouvre sur la justice distributive par « La

Théorie de la justice» de Jean Rawls. Pour lui,la justice n'est pas

seulement une valeur rangée au milieu des autres valeurs efficaces

dans l'ordre social et la relation humaine ;par contre ,elle est la

valeur primordiale et même la meilleur des valeurs sociales.

Dans cet article, nous avons essayé de vous présenter une esquisse

générale des questions importantes et les conflits théoriques qui se

posent dans ce domaine.

La justice comme la description de la structure sociale

La discussion sur la justice sociale nous pose une question

essentielle :La formation d'une société équitable dont la structure

est fondée sur les principes de la justice, a-t-elle besoin de quelles

critères et pour le faire , quels principes doivent-ils dominer l'ordre

de la structure sociale?

Les critères de la justice

Les différentes théories dont leur contenu est recherché ,nous

dévoilent que chaque théorie ,en tant que la base et le fondement des

principes de leur justice, a mis l'accent sur un élément particulier

.Ces critères de base s'interprètent par Vil KIMLIKA comme les

Ahmad VAEZI

La justice sociale et ses

problèmes

Dialogue

116

valeurs fondamentales et défini. Par exemple, la liberté est reconnue

par les libéraux classiques et modernes, comme la valeur de base et

l'axe principale de la société idéale tandis que l'élément de l'égalité

et le problème du besoin sont la valeur de base pour les socialistes.

Deux questions essentielles qui se posent sur le critère de base et la

valeur ultime et dominante de la justice sociale sont les suivantes :

Quel critère précède les autres aux quels les théoriciens de la justice

en sont venus et qui doit être considéré comme la base originale et la

valeur ultime, dominant les principes de la justice distributive ? Estil

nécessaire, en principe, de considérer une valeur comme la base et

le fondement primordial de la justice ?

Peut-être convient-il au lieu d'insister sur une valeur définitive, que

nous mettions l'accent sur un ensemble des valeurs et des critères

pour qu'ils se distinguent des autres par leurs propres qualités dans

une domaine particulière et soient considérés comme un critère

de base pour la distribution des droits ,des responsabilité et des

ressources .

Le fondement philosophique et la théorie de la justice

Les hypothèses philosophiques, épistémologiques et morales

particulières se trouvent d'une manière implicite ou explicite, à la base

des théories de la justice. Cette idée insistant sur l'impossibilité de

théoriser la justice sans l'avoir soutenu par les bases philosophiques

ou morales particulières est à l'inverse de celle de Jean Rawls qui,

dans ses oeuvres, insiste sur la possibilité de théoriser politiquement

la justice.

Le problème de justifier les principes de la justice

Toute théorie de la justice affronte rapidement le problème d'être

justifiée. Cela signifie qu'il faut préciser les bases d'argumentation

sur les quelles elle s'appuie et définir la mode par laquelle elle

démontre sa supériorité sur les théories concurrentes. La réponse des

théoriciens se diffèrent l'un de l'autre et prend ses racines dans le

fondement général de leur épistémologie surtout celle de la morale

et de la valeur.

La relation entre le vrai et le bien

Quel concept faut-il considérer, entre le bien et le vrai, comme l'axe

117

Résumé

de la justice ? Ici, c'est le contenu moral et judiciaire du mot du«

vrai» que nous avons en considération.

La relation de la théorie de la justice à la conception spéciale

d'un individu

C'est dans la conception spéciale d'un individu que certains

théoriciens comme KANTE et RAWLS cherchent l'origine des

principes de la justice. Enfin ils ont reconnu chacun, d'une manière

différente que le juge et celui qui distingue les principes, est un

homme qui a un caractère spécial et qui ne rend aucune importance à

ses propres objectifs et ses désirs personnels.

*Apologiste de l'islam (titre donné à certains patriarches

musulmans)

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La dignité humaine de laquelle l'homme n'est frustré et ses droits,

sont traités au Deutéronome du Pentateuque de l'Ancien Testament

comme la perception initiale humaine du Droit de l'homme .C'est là

que le droit de l'homme au bien-être, intitulé actuellement comme

le droit au progrès, est reconnu et qui lui permet de les réclamer en

cas précis.

Ensuite, au point de vue sociale et politique, l'homme est exigé de

constituer une société fraternelle dépourvue de pauvreté , préparant

l'instauration d'un système social équitable qui se soumet à la loi.

Ici, nous affrontons une prétention et un ordre qui ne sont pas, jusqu'

à nos jours, discrédités.

Il faut dire qu'en certain cas les instructions sociales et humaines

de l'Islam et du Christianisme s'accordent. Par exemple, c'est

l'instauration d'un système social équitable et ses principes

nécessaires comme le respect de la solidarité et la lutte contre la

pauvreté qu'elles ont de commun.

Le fait que toutes les deux religions n'ont jamais prétendu à codifier

une théorie fondée sur les solides présuppositions est un autre point

commun. À propos des problèmes économiques il existe d'autres

points communs et les nuances entre les principes islamiques et

chrétiens.

****

En ce qui concerne la politique et l'économie, il faut souligner que

la paix et la justice ne sont pas les faits évidents. De toute éternité

H. Pischler, H. Schnider

Les éléments politiques et

économiques menaçant la paix et

la justice dans le monde

contemporain

119

Résumé

l'homme était et est exploité et victime de l'injustice. Toutes les

deux se sont tellement liées qu'il faut considérer la justice comme

la condition préalable à la réalisation de la paix. Mais Le Nouveau

Testament nous en parle ainsi : « Par suite de l'effort des pacifistes

qui ont cultivé les grains de la paix et de la réconciliation, on récolte

la justice réelle.»

De là, l'on infère que la paix est la condition essentielle d'atteindre

à la justice. Le fait que l'économie mondiale dans le monde

contemporain se sert de la politique ou que le rapport entre le but et

le moyen y est inversé, nous aborde une autre question. D'ailleurs

l'un des articles conflictuels de l'Occident contemporain est la

conséquence négative entraînée par l'économie mondiale ,à tel point

que selon Pape Jean-Paul II , les évolutions du monde moderne

d'Occident sont les effets d'une sorte d'économisme exagéré ,

injuste et sans principes.

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La justice est une vérité unique dont la définition est «Placer toute

chose au lieu où elle mérite » et « Donner le droit à l'ayant droit »

comme l'avait faite ARISTOTE .La première définition peut être

considérée comme la définition de la vérité pour ce qui existe et la

deuxième définition n'est que la description de la réalisation de la

justice pour les devoirs et les compétences. Les deux définitions,

avec une bonne proportion, sont complètement reliées à l'analyse de

la justice.

Dans la réflexion islamique, la justice est le principe le plus original

des principes de création et de législation et aussi la valeur divine

la plus étendue de l'homme. Ici nous avons essayé d'expliquer la

relation de la justice aux certains articles importants en démontrant,

brièvement, les limites de l'ampleur et même l'universalité de la

justice et présentant sa grandeur et sa position.

Voici certains articles : la justice et la vérité ; l'origine du monde, le

vrai ; l'existence ; la religion ; la prophétie ; la résurrection ; l'envoi

en mission des prophètes ; la délivrance divine ; les prescriptions

religieuses ; la loi ; le droit ; la sécurité ; la liberté ; l'égalité ; Djihad

(la guerre sainte) ; la morale ; la paix ; la raison et le bonheur.

Nous avons traité dans la deuxième partie, les obstacles de la justice

c'est-à-dire les problèmes et les éléments qui s'opposent d'une

manière quelconque à la justice.

Nous pouvons indiquer certains exemples de ces obstacles :

 L'ignorance des gouverneurs et des législateurs à propos du concept

de la justice ou de l'oppression

Ali Akbar RASHAD

La position et les obstacles de

la justice

121

Résumé

 La justification des attitudes oppressives sous les prétextes

absurdes

 La difficulté d'exécuter la justice par les gouverneurs et celle de

supporter sa réalisation par les peuples

 Considérer la justice écartée des autres valeurs divines

 Aimer, haïre, être l'ami ou l'ennemi

 La discrimination

 La pitié inopportune

 La différence entre la parole et l'action de ceux qui revendique

La justice

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122

Les définitions de la paix, celles qui existent, sont regroupées dans

les différentes catégories. Les efforts permanents qui cherchent

atteindre à une autre ou enfin à une nouvelle définition de la paix,

sont justifiés par les différentes exigences politiques, sociales et

culturelles. Il semble que ces nouvelles définitions ne sont que

la paix définie par la religion. Certaines instructions religieuses

invitant les croyants à la guerre aussi bien qu'à la paix, ont fait croire

aux certains chercheurs que la religion a une vision paradoxale sur

la paix. Dans la réflexion islamique, la relation des musulmans, non

seulement dans la communauté islamique entre eux mais aussi avec

les infidèles_ autant que ceux-ci ne sont pas agressifs et ne suscitent

pas des troubles_ s'est établie et définie sur le concept de la paix.

Voici quelques preuves à démontrer cette prétention : le refus de

l'application de la guerre pour forcer les infidèles à se convertir à

l'Islam ; la priorité donnée aux solutions pacifiques , la nécessité de

l'activité culturelle , la recommandation, et l'appel à la paix sur la

guerre ; inviter tous les fidèles à vivre en paix et la recommandation

à faire du bien avec les non agressifs.

L'analyse lexicologique, nous montre que l'Islam prend grand soin

de la paix .En principe, le mot de « la paix » signifie s'éloigner du

malheur interne et externe, mais selon les cas où elle est utilisée

dans les textes religieux, on peut distinguer ces caractéristiques

suivantes : être général, être fondé sur la vérité et qui n'insiste

jamais sur la guerre.

Ainsi la réflexion islamique définit-elle la paix « SELM » comme :

Mohsen ALVIRI

La Paix et le pacifisme;

l'Approche islamique

123

Résumé

Toutes sortes de la relation fondée sur la vérité , hors du malheur

entre les hommes ou entre l'individu et la société ,les hommes et

les Etats,les Etats entre eux-mêmes, entre les Etats et les nations et

même entre l'homme et Dieu.

En Islam, la conception de la paix dans les relations sociales et

même dans la manière de l'appel à l'Islam des infidèles est traduite

d'une manière remarquable en forme des symboles et les cultes

religieux .Voici quelques exemples claires et évidents :

1- Le reflet du pacifisme dans le nom de la religion d'Islam

2- Le pacifisme (application de SELM) dans les lettres politiques

de MAHOMET

3- Les musulmans étant tenu d'exécuter des moyens pacifiques dans

leurs relations

Le message initial et véritable de la religion est la paix mais

conditionné à la vérité et à la justice. La paix dans la réflexion

islamique n'est qu'un moyen à établir la vérité et la justice. Attendu

que la vraie paix ne s'établit qu'à l'ombre de la justice, l'Islam

a prêté aussi, une grande attention aux instruments et aux moyens

applicables à établir la justice .Quand il nécessite, il se sert de Djihad

(guerre sainte) comme l'un des moyens à réaliser la paix équitable.

Vu que ces applications militaires ne sont que des moyens de

réaliser la paix équitable, l'Islam s'en sert. Mais selon les cas cités

au-dessous, ce-là ne dépasse jamais ses limites du pacifisme :

1. Conditionner la guerre à une seule cause : être pour « la voie

d'ALLAH » ;

2. Donner une nature culturelle à la guerre

3. Accepter obligatoirement la demande de la paix de leur

adversaire

4. L'exigence de ne pas dépasser les limites déterminées par Le

Saint Législateur

5. L'interdiction de Djihad aux certains lieux et dans les temps sûrs

6. À moins que leurs adversaires ne commencent la guerre, les

musulmans sont défendus de commencer initialement la guerre

même après la disposition de combat des armées.

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124

Dès l'aube de l'humanité, le concept de l'amour a influencé le

monde primaire et même moderne. L'élément de l'amour qui est

le principe le plus important de la modération entre les religion, est

aussi une force motivante à la formation de la culture ,de point de

vue idéologique et morale, de la civilisation humaine.

Il est l'élément initial et même original des créations humaines, de

toutes formes des activités humaines dans les domaines de religion,

d'art, de littérature, de musique, de danse, de théâtre, de paix, de

dialogue, de philosophie et de mysticisme.

D'autre côté, l'amour se considère comme l'élément essentiel du

mysticisme. C'est pourquoi les mystiques dans toutes les religions

étaient et sont des messagers de la paix et de la modération qui ont

abaissé le fanatisme et la violence.

Cet article vas aborder le thème de l'amour mystique (l'amour divin)

dans la pensée de deux grands mystiques hindou et musulman :

Mawlawi Djalāladdin Rūmī (1207-1273) et Ramakrishna( 1836-

1886).

Dans leurs pensées, élément original de la perfection spirituelle, le

meilleur moyen de détruire l'orgueil et enfin l'élément fondamental

de la modération n'est que l'amour.Tous les deux mystiques en

croient que le meilleur chemin de la réalisation de la pure vérité et

aussi l'exigence la plus importante pour la conserver, est le chemin

de l'amour .Ils pensent que l'amour divin change profondément la

vie et la personnalité des amoureux et leur donne une autre teinte.

Fayyaz Garaï

L'amour, l'élément fondamental

de modération chez

Ramakrishna et Malawi

125

Résumé

Cet amour ne laisse aucune place aux autres et détruit toutes les

faiblesse humaines comme l'horreur, la honte, l'avidité et la haine.

Les mots clés : Mawlawi, Ramakrishna, L'amour,

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126

La justice est l'un des principes fondamentaux du Chiisme .Dieu est

juste et qui ne fait jamais des actes contre le principe de la justice .La

justice divine se reconnaît par la preuve et la raison et qui s'affirme

par les documents et les témoins. Dieu se comporte d'une façon juste

avec l'homme et qui l'exige de se comporter d'une manière juste,

d'établir la justice dans la société. La mission des prophètes n'est

que d'établir la justice sociale.

Un musulman est celui qui est juste vis-à-vis de lui-même, de sa

femme, de ses enfants, et des autres même de ses ennemies. Selon la

loi Chiite ,Il y a quelques places religieuses ,sociales ou politiques

dont les occupants sont demandés et exigés d'être toujours justes

comme les chefs de la prière du vendredi,les témoins, les juges, les

autorités judiciaires et les hommes d'Etats.

Ici, nous nous référons aux Traditions (Hadiths) provenant du

Prophète et Sa famille dont le sujet aborde la justice individuelle

ou sociale. L'histoire du chiisme contient des mouvements

révolutionnaires et de combats qui, ayant l'objectif d'appliquer

des lois islamiques et de réaliser la justice, se sont passés. L'affaire

de Kārbalā est l'événement le plus important et efficace qui s'est

arrivé.

Ce drame et les événements suivants nous a révélé que la

communauté islamique d'alors s'était sérieusement détournée

de la voie du Prophète. Choquer la communauté, c'était le seul

moyen d'informer le peuple de ce fait .Avoir la foi en MAHDI

(Imam attendu) et son retour à appliquer la justice sur la terre est lié

Mohammadali Shomli

La Quête de la justice

127

Résumé

exactement au sujet de la justice islamique.

Dans cet article, ces trois principes (Traditions du Prophète, affaire

du Kārbalā et retour de MAHDI) sont indiqués comme les questions

qui, en Islam, ont mis l'accent sur la justice d'Allah.

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128

La justice a un sens qui se diffère dans les différentes sociétés et

tout peuple en général est allé quérir la justice selon leurs principes

épistémologiques et leurs présuppositions ontologiques. L'idée que

nous faisons du Christianisme dans son universalité, prend ses

racines dans les pensées de la Grèce, les stoïciens même les différents

peuples. Le Christianisme a passé trois périodes : Antiquité, Moyen

âge et Temps moderne.

Le christianisme soutenu solidement par l'Ancien et le Nouveau

Testament a fait du chemin où il a eu de nombreux faits et qui comme

un enfant est tombé souvent par terre mais qui s'éleva tôt .Moyen

âge a été l'âge d'or du Christianisme.

La justice et l'Administration religieuse considérées comme les

délégués en pleins pouvoirs, appliquaient la justice telle qu'il en

convenait et exigeait. Dans ce moment, le langage de la religion qui

ne parle souvent que des obligations s'est apparu déterminant .Les

croyants au lieu de chercher leurs obligations parmi leurs droits,

cherchaient leurs droits parmi leurs obligations mais dès l'époque de

La Réforme religieuse et l'apparition du Temps Moderne ,tout s'est

changé. Les autorités et les chefs d'Etats ont abandonné l'église et le

clergé et ont pris le pouvoir eux-mêmes.

C'est l'époque où le scholarism survint. Les droits divins ont

été oubliés et les signes du Royaume de DIEU sont enlevés de

terre .C'est ainsi que l'homme remplaça DIEU et a prononcé «La

Saeed Karimi

Introduction À La Conception

de la Justice dans le

Christianisme

129

Résumé

Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen » .De cette façon,

la seule issue de l'Église qui allait être abolie du Temps n'était que

d'y faire face. Ainsi, en présentant certains principes au conseil

important et essentiel, intitulé « DEUXIÈME CONSEIL DE

VATICAN », elle s'y confronta.

La justice était l'un des concepts en cas de conflit du Temps Moderne.

Enfin la justice vue par l'Église a été rejetée de la politique mais au «

DEUXIÈME CONSEIL DE VATICAN», la justice resta toujours

un sujet très intéressant. Est-ce que l'Église y a fait de bons efforts?

11

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